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Education (Reference List Included)
Duschl,R.A.,Schweingruber, H. A.,& Shouse,A.W.(2007)Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten through Eighth Grade;National Research Council. National Academies Press.
FAQs. (2016). Retrieved October 18, 2016, fromwww.nextgenscience.org
National Education Association of the United States. Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. (1928). Cardinal principles of secondary education: A report of the commission on the reorganization of secondary education (No. 35). Govt. print. off. -
Free Public Schools
"In 1837, Horace Mann, the Secretary of Education in Massachusetts, began reforming the state's school system, creating grade levels, common standards and mandatory attendance to ensure that all citizens could become virtuous, educated voters. Others states copied his system, and by 1870, all states had tax-supported, locally controlled elementary schools, though attendance was usually not required" -
**Connectionism (Drill and Practice)
"The belief that learning established bonds, or connections, between a stimulus and response. This led teachers to the endless use of drills aimed at establishing important mathematical connections" (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education
"The Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education presents the cardinal principles which, in the judgment of its reviewing committee, should guide the reorganization and development of secondary education in the United States" ("National Education", 1928). -
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**Progressive Movement
"The progressive movement advocated incidental learning, reflecting the belief that children would learn as much arithmetic as they needed and would learn it better if not systematically taught" (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
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**The Committee of Seven
"The Committee of Seven- a committee made up of superintendents and principals from Midwestern cities surveyed pupils to find out when they mastered various topics. The recommendations of the Committee of Seven had a strong impact on the sequencing of the curriculum for years afterward" (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
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National Science Foundation (NSF)
"The 1950s and 1960s saw the first federal foray into science teacher education and curriculum reform under the auspices of the National Science Foundation’s (NSF) summer institutes and curriculum development projects. A milestone in science education, the NSF curriculum development projects focused on upgrading the teaching of science by modernizing the content of science courses. These projects laid the foundation for the succeeding decades of science education research and reform" -
**William Brownell
An article written by William A. Brownell “a prominent mathematics education researcher, showed the benefits of encouraging insight and the understanding of relationships, structures, patterns, interpretations and principles. His research contributed to an increased focus on learning as a process that led to meaning and understanding. The value of drill was acknowledged, but it was given less importance than understanding; drill was no longer the major means of providing instruction”. -
**Sputnick
"The shock of evidence of another countries technological superiority sped curriculum change in the United States" (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
NSF Sponsored Programs
"With this public engagement agenda in mind, NSF by 1964 sponsored some 20 innovative large-scale K-12 science curriculum development projects, such as the Physical Science Study Committee, ChemStudy, the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, and the Earth Science Curriculum Study" (Duschl, Schweingruber & Shouse, 2007). -
Resistance to NSF
"In the 1970s serious challenges were raised to NSF that, through its curriculum programs, a national curriculum was being advanced. NSF-sponsored teacher professional development programs ceased to operate for several years" (Duschl, Schweingruber & Shouse, 2007). -
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**Minimum Competency Movement
"Emphasis was placed on skills needed in the real world. This movement stressed the basics. As embodied in sets of objectives and in tests, the basics were considered to be primarily addition, subtraction, multiplication and division with whole numbers and fractions” (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
Science Achievement
"NSF curricula had substantial reach, and in 1977 some 60 percent of U.S. school districts reported using one or another of the NSF-sponsored science curricula" (Duschl, Schweingruber & Shouse, 2007). -
"At Risk" Nation
"In the 1980s, policy makers examined K-12 student achievement rates and declared the nation “at risk” of economic catastrophe. They prescribed ramping up high school graduation requirements, especially in science and mathematics, a recommendation that was a precursor to the standards-based reforms of the 1990s" (Duschl, Schweingruber & Shouse, 2007). -
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**The NCTM
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics started to develop standards for school mathematics. “The NCTM developed standards for curriculum and for evaluation, teaching and assessment. The standards paved the way for all other subjects and also acted as a vision for how schools could and should teach math in the classroom" (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
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Science Standard Reforms
"The K-12 subject matter communities, comprised of education researchers, curriculum developers, scientists, teacher educators, and teachers, developed frameworks to guide state and local authorities with curriculum development. In science these were Benchmarks for Science Literacy and The National Science Education Standards" (Duschl, Schweingruber & Shouse, 2007). -
**Updated Standards
"The NCTM updated the standards with the publication of Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. The standards describe the mathematical content and mathematical processes that should be taught in school mathematics” (Reyes, Lindquist & Smith, 2015). -
States Begin to Assess Science
"No Child Left Behind Act requires that states assess science beginning in the 2006-2007 school year" (Duschl, Schweingruber & Shouse, 2007). -
Next Generation Sciencce Standards (NGSS)
"The National Research Council (NRC) defines disciplinary core ideas as those that focus K–12 science curriculum, instruction and assessments on the most important aspects of science disciplinary content knowledge" (FAQ's", 2016).