-
Issues in Women's Rights
American colonies, referencing English laws, only recognized women in connection with their spouses (7). Women were rendered incapable of processing complex educational items; and were therefore precluded from seeking educational opportunities beyond what is now known as primary education (7). -
Slavery South
Southern slave holders, understanding, "social control of slaves could not be based solely on physical coercion" (1), established laws forbidding enslaved African Americans from reading and writing. -
Oberlin College
Founded in 1833, Oberlin College becomes the first co-educational institution of higher learning that accepts both women and African-American students (6). -
Early Native American Education
Congress bans Native Americans from educating children in their native language. Native American children, " as young as four years old" (6), were removed from their homes and taken to Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) boarding schools (6). These off-reservation boarding schools were intended to, "kill the Indian to save the man" (6). -
African American Public Education
Following the Civil War, African Americans began working with Republicans on political reform. The focus of their efforts included rewriting the constitution to include a provision guaranteeing free public education (6). While these efforts introduced formal education to African Americans in the south, white children proved to be the primary benefactors (6). -
Segregation of Pubic Schools
Following the Reconstruction era, southern whites regained political control of the region and began laying the foundation for racially segregated schools (6). There was a great disparity between the educational experiences of African American and Caucasian students (11). African American students were often subjected to extreme weather conditions, diluted curriculum, inadequate materials, and scarce resources towards advancement (11). -
Chinese Nationalism
Following the California gold rush of the 1840's, Chinese immigrants and their descendants were the victims of discrimination and exclusionary legislation (5). Sparked by the Chinese Nationalist Movement of 1905, the "U.S. Supreme Court require[d] California to extend education to the children of Chinese immigrants" (5). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q7KZFXRYidI -
Brown v. Board of Education
This U.S. Supreme Court Case, "challenged the constitutionality of racial segregation in public school systems" (8). The ruling found a separate but equal approach to public education and educational facilities was inherently unequal and a violation of the Fourteenth Amendment (8)."The Brown v. Board decision helped break the back of state-sponsored segregation, and provided a spark to the American civil rights movement" (8). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OkuiMr2tLJE -
Little Rock 9
Governor Orval Faubus, resistant to a federal court order for integration, calls in the National Guard to prevent African American students from integrating the public school system in Arkansas (6). In response to this impediment, President Eisenhower reluctantly sends intervention by way of federal troops to enforce the court order. President Eisenhower's intervention was not in support of desegregation, rather opposition to Faubus' use of military power to defy a federal court order (6). -
Council on Equal Opportunity: Affirmative Action
President John F. Kennedy's mandate prohibits federally funded entities from discriminating against any individuals based on race, gender, nationality, or religious belief during selection processes (3). Kennedy expresses, "This is the next and the more profound stage of the battle for civil rights. We seek not just freedom, but opportunity. We seek not just legal equity, but human ability; not just equality as a right and a theory, but equality as a fact and equality as a result” (3). -
Desegreation of Higher Educational Institutions
In 1961, after years of litigation, the NAACP emerged victorious in the battle to integrate collegiate institutions (13). In a federal court ruling, Judge Bootle ordered the University of Georgia to admit two African American students, Hamilton Holmes and Charlayne Hunter (13). Other public and private colleges in Georgia soon followed suit (13). -
The Civil Rights Act
For Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and others instrumental in the Civil Rights Movement, the passing of the Civil Rights Act, prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex, proved to be a monumental victory for marginalized groups (2). As a result of the The Civil Rights Act, citizens of today, regardless of the aforementioned characteristics have access to educational, employment, and social opportunities. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6x0l_vkjozc -
Title IX
Title IX declares, "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.."(10). Perhaps one of the greatest successes of Title IX rests in collegiate athletics. Because of Title IX, more than 200,000 female student athletes compete annually at the collegiate level (14).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GFMza74Bm_c -
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
In this notable reverse discrimination Supreme Court case, Allan Bakke, a white applicant who was twice denied admission to UC Davis' medical school even though his MCAT scores, GPA, and benchmark scores were significantly higher than some of the minority students admitted, challenged the college's use of racial quotas (2). The courts ruled colleges are not permitted to reference racial quotas during admissions processes; but could use affirmative action precepts in making selections (2). -
Charter Schools
Charter schools, a teacher driven learning environment, provide "alternative forms of teaching to enhance education and to create education equity by eliminating school segregation and offering choice and access to better schools" (4). -
Alliance for Equity in Higher Education
The Institute for Higher Education Policy forms the Alliance for Equity in Higher Education to represent the "shared interest of Tribal Colleges and Universities, Hispanic-Serving Institutions, and Historically Black Colleges and Universities" (17). -
Standardized Testing Boycotts/Protests
Educators are joining together in protest against standardized testing citing, "Standardized testing perpetuates institutionalized racism and contributes to the achievement gap between whites and minorities" (14). Research suggests the scores of minority students on standardized tests are lower than white students due to "existing, hidden biases in the development and administration of standardized tests and interpretation of their scores..." (14). https://youtu.be/Qw0sY9L3mxU -
Standardized Testing Protests/Boycotts Ctd.
These revelations regarding the biases of standardized testing against minority students questions the validity of referencing standardized test scores for college admission (14). -
Growing Tensions Spark the Need for Educational Reform
Growing modern day racial, religious, and sexuality tensions cause educational policy makers to be more intentional about their responsibility to inspire and affect change (18). Higher education begins to shift its focus to equity, and hiring of "equity-minded" leaders understanding, "Expanding access to quality education is key to making
opportunity real for all. It is key to closing America’s
deepening divides, strengthening the middle class, and
ensuring our nation’s vitality" (18). -
New Presidential Administration Proposed Budgetary Cuts
The proposed budget under the Trump administration threatened to drastically reduce funding to programs such as TRiO that serve to support first generation/low income students in pursuit of higher education (11). Minority students have been the predominate beneficiaries of these programs. A threat to program funding is also a direct threat to the nation's progress in educational equity. -
Discontinuation of the Opening Doors, Expanding Opportunities Initiative
U.S. Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos announces she will discontinue the program that issues grants to educational institutions to promote diversity (16). Critics of the decision believes it will inevitably, “End the School-Integration Comeback.” DeVos argues the initiative was ineffective in enhancing diversity in that grant dollars went toward facilities instead of students (16). . -
Expiration of DACA Legislation
President Trump imposes an expiration date of March 6, 2018 for the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program. The DACA program protects individuals who entered America illegally as minors from deportation; and makes them eligible for work permits (19). In light of the impeding program expiration, colleges are cautioning undocumented students from seeking renewal or submission of initial applications out of fear they may be targeted for deportation (19). -
Future Outlook
Amid social anguish and the looming threat of the presidential administration modifying or extinguishing federal policy effecting educational equity, colleges/universities are challenged to "stand up and take the lead for equity" (18). Colleges have begun developing institutional policy in favor of equity; and are establishing departments such as Title IX Compliance and Diversity/Multicultural Affairs, to ensure the climate on their campuses are inclusive and supportive of all students. -
References
- History. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/slaveprohibit.html.
- Supreme Court rulings. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_regents.html.
-
References
- 5 things to know about affirmative action. (2012). Retrieved from http://inamerica.blogs.cnn.com/2012/10/10/5-things-to-know-about-affirmative-action/.
-
References
- Chinese boycott of 1905. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://immigrationtounitedstates.org/421-chinese-boycott-of-1905.html.
- Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.raceforward.org/research/reports/historical-timeline-public-education-us.
-
References
- Are charter schools better in creating education equity? (2017, March 13). Retrieved from https://onlinedegrees.sandiego.edu/are-charter-schools-better-in-creating-education-equity/.
-
References
- History of women's rights in America. (2017). Retrieved from http://yourdream.liveyourdream.org/2017/03/history-of-womens-rights-america/?gclid=CjwKEAjwj6PKBRCAy9-07PeTtGgSJAC1P9xGYMjciknAG3tWTXtDutKY8ufBn ZRr2AEVKMpgOqk2GhoCNlnw_wcB.
-
References
- History.com Staff. (2009). Brown v. Board of Education. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/black-history/brown-v-board-of-education-of-topeka.
- Landmark Cases of the U.S. Supreme Court. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://landmarkcases.org/en/landmark/cases/brown_v_board_of_education.
-
References
- J. (2014). Title IX Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/inclusion/title-ix-frequently-asked-questions#title.
-
References
- The slave experience: education, arts and culture. (n.d.) Slavery and the Making of America. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/education/history2.html.
-
References
- Hatfield, E.A. (n.d.). Desegragation of higher education. Retrieved from http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/desegregation-higher-education
-
References
- Krieg, G., & Mullery, W. (2017, May 23). Trump's budget by the numbers: What gets cut and why. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.cnn.com/2017/05/23/politics/trump-budget-cuts-programs/index.html
-
References
- Ross, T.F. (2015). What gender inequality looks like in collegiate sports. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/03/what-gender-inequality-looks-like-in-collegiate-sports/387985/
-
References
- Jaschik, S. (New evidence of racial bias on SAT. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2010/06/21/sat.
-
References
- Alliance for equity in higher education. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.ihep.org/about-ihep/partners/networks-and-coalitions/alliance-equity-higher-education
-
Reference
- Crookston, P. (2017). Betsy DeVos ends Obama era diversity grants. The National Review. Retrieved from http://www.nationalreview.com/corner/446323/betsy-devos-ends-obama-era-diversity-grants-promoting-integration.
-
References
- Association of American Colleges and Universities. (2015). Stand up and lead for equity: what higher education can do to reverse our deepening divide. Retrieved from https://www.aacu.org/sites/default/files/StepUpLeadEquity.pdf.
-
References
19 DACA information. (n.d.) What is DACA. Retrieved from https://undocu.berkeley.edu/legal-support-overview/what-is-daca/ -
References
Hurdle, T. (2017). Curriculum trends. Unpublished manuscript. Angelo State University. -
Referencs
Diverse student group. [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://www.insightintodiversity.com/recognizing-the-need-to-support-multiracial-college-students/ -
References
John F. Kennedy. [Photograph]. Retrieved fromhttps://www.google.com/search?q=john+f+kennedy&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiTg-CXhs7UAhVIyoMKHYFmCeQQ_AUICigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=UyYYx7yQ_iYIVM:. -
References
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=martin+luther+king+jr&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDmfu6hs7UAhWD0YMKHV7GAUgQ_AUIBigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=QXdaF9onEaXR4M:. -
References
Mother and daughter on steps with headline paper. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=brown+v+board+of+of+education&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjir6_yhs7UAhUS24MKHZU3AmYQ_AUIBigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=L51RwJGFiK1mdM:. -
References
Integrated classroom. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=brown+v+board+of+of+education&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjir6_yhs7UAhUS24MKHZU3AmYQ_AUIBigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=RAbZiHfq3YM25M:. -
References
Little Rock nine. [Photography]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=little+rock+9&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvrHth87UAhUm5oMKHe8rBTsQ_AUIBigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=a9f9PafBSIx4pM:. -
References
Native American children in boarding school. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=little+rock+9&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjAvrHth87UAhUm5oMKHe8rBTsQ_AUIBigB&biw=1440&bih=738#tbm=isch&q=native+american+early+education&imgrc=xG3FQmoB3-y1wM:. -
References
Oberlin Integrated Class of Women. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=oberlin+college&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwjqwJXjiM7UAhVG2IMKHcvsCgsQ_AUICCgD&biw=1440&bih=738#tbm=isch&q=oberlin+college+integration&imgrc=n8LUqdIG0LtI1M:. -
References
Teachers protest standardized testing. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=standardized+testing+boycott&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwii3NOais7UAhXh8YMKHevICkMQ_AUIBigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=IGOz3HEETiatnM:. -
References
Muslim American protest. [photograph]. Retrieved from http://mondoweiss.net/2016/11/organizing-americans-registry/. -
References
Protest Bakke case. [Photograph]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/search?q=regents+of+the+university+of+california+v.+bakke&noj=1&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjD8rXVis7UAhUl54MKHZhrBTkQ_AUICigB&biw=1440&bih=738#imgrc=6i3I0rN4qSc5oM:. -
Refereces
Early African American school post Civil War. [Photograph]. Retrieved from .https://www.google.com/search?q=oberlin+college&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&sqi=2&ved=0ahUKEwjqwJXjiM7UAhVG2IMKHcvsCgsQ_AUICCgD&biw=1440&bih=738#tbm=isch&q=freedman+schoo&imgrc=B3AwXCk6gMuf3M:
