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Creation of Freedman's Bureau
This is a government organization created for former slaves recently freed by the 13th amendment to ease the journey from slave to free life. They were largely responsible for creating nearly 1,600 day schools for African-Americans to be educated (African American Heritage, 2016). -
Ratification of the 13th Amendment (Constitutional Law)
The ratification of the 13th Amendment freed all those who were living in slavery. This was the first step towards educational equity for African-Americans (US Const. amend. XII). -
Plessy v. Ferguson (Judicial Law)
Homer Plessy, a light skinned African-American was arrested for sitting on a white train car. The case pleaded that this violated 14th Amendment. Having to ride separately means there is not equity. The Supreme Court ruled separate is in fact equal. This ruling forced African-American students to attend separate schools than white students. The schools were known to be anything but equal (Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896). -
Linda Brown is Turned Away
Linda Brown, an African-American resident of Topeka, Kansas, lived very close to the neighborhood white-only school. Many of her childhood friends were from this neighborhood white-only school. Linda, though, had to attend the colored-only school over a mile from her home. Her family received a registration form from the white-only school by mistake. When Linda's family tried to register her, they sent her away. Her father was then led to meet with the NAACP (Silverman & Smith, 2018). -
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (Judicial Law)
Chief Justice Earl Warren brought the Supreme Court agreement that "separate is not equal." Based on this ruling, public schools must now integrate. The decision was based on the court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. Students of African-American, Latino, and Asian decent are now to be able to attend white-only schools (Brown v. Board, 1954). -
Ruby Bridges, First to Desegregate Southern Schools
Although Brown v. Board of Education ruling took place in 1954, it took schools awhile to desegregate. In Tylertown, Mississippi, colored students were required to take a test in order to attend white schools. African-American 1st grader, Ruby Bridges, passed the test. She was the first colored student to attend a white-only school. Due to extreme prejudice, she was escorted by four federal marshals to and from school (Michals, 2015). -
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act (Statutory Law)
The Civil Rights Act protects people from racial discrimination in programs or activities that receive federal assistance. Title VI of this act states: No person in the United States shall, on the ground of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance. This includes public education equality for all people (42 U.S.C. § 2000d et seq.). -
Swan v. Charolette-Mecklenburg Board of Education (Judicial Law)
This Supreme Court case ruling dealt with busing students to promote the integration of schools. This was posed as a remedy for the unbalance of school integration. Students were going to schools located near their homes, and due to this, many schools remained segregated following the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas decision (Swan v. Charolette-Mecklenburg, 1971). -
Milliken v. Bradley (Judicial Law)
The Supreme Court overturned their previous ruling of Swann v. Charolette-Meclenburg Board of Education with this case. Bussing students from different districts to promote integration of schools was posing a problem for Detroit schools. Schools were no longer required to bus in students from out of district, thus it allowed for segregation to continue (Milliken v. Bradley, 1974). -
Equal Educational Opportunities Act (Statutory Law)
This federal law prohibits the discrimination of faculty, staff, and students. This includes racial segregation. The school districts are now required to take action to overcome any barriers to students' equal educational experience (20 U.S.C. § 1701 et seq.). -
Segregation Increases
According to the Harvard Civil Rights Project, during the 1990s schools were becoming more segregated once again. This took place particularly with Latinos and non-Hispanic whites. The lead researcher states this is most likely because of where people decide to live (Zehr, 2001). -
Racial INequality in Education Today
Many laws have been passed to increase educational equality, but there is still work to be done.
In 2014, high school graduation rates for white students was 87 percent and 73 percent for African-Americans. African-American students are 3.8 times more likely than white peers to receive out of school suspensions. Majority of school teachers are white females. African-Americans are 2-3 times more likely to be removed from class. Racial disparities firmly exist in this system (Weir, 2016). -
Major Event References
Michals, D. (2015). Ruby Bridges. Retrieved from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/ruby-bridges?gclid=Cj0KCQjw6cHoBRDdARIsADiTTzZPBBRVySN4KkL2XYjFLsNijB1uynKMN_AGrqpngdKAHEdu5gVE_OgaAmkiEALw_wcBWeir, K. (2016). Inequality at school. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/monitor/2016/11/cover-inequality-school
Zehr, M. A. (2019, February 23). Schools Grew More Segregated In 1990s, Report Says. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2001/08/08/43deseg.h20.html -
Law References
U.S. Const. amend. XIII.
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 US 483 (1954).
Civil Rights Act of 1964 § 6, 42 U.S.C § 2000d et seq.
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 402 U.S. 1 (1971).
Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974, 20 USC § 1701 et seq.
Milliken v. Bradley, 418 U.S. 717 (1974). -
Major Event References Continued
African American Records: Freedmen's Bureau. (2016). Retrieved from https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans/freedmens-bureau
Smith, H., & Silverman, E. (2018, March 26). Linda Brown
Thompson, girl at center of Brown v. Board of Education case, dies. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/linda-brown-young-girl-at-center-of-brown-v-board-segregation-case-dies-at-76/2018/03/26/2406d6d8-3138-11e8-8abc-22a366b72f2d_story.html?noredirect=on&utm_term=.3a2326f891a
