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Alaskan Panhandle
The Eastern borders of Alaska were never established throughout the Russian colonization nor through American control. The panhandle was an attractive region due to its abundance of fish and sea otters. Russian explorers had settled along coastal Alaska throughout the 19th century, followed by the growth of American and British presences. -
Treaty of Saint Petersburg
A treaty signed by British and Russian government officials which set the of the panhandle at 54°40’ N latitude. The treaty focused on the coastal boundaries as the interior region was very mountainous and was not seen as a priority during negotiations. -
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The Crimean War
This war was mainly caused by Russian demands to exercise protection over the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman sultan as well as disputes over the privileges of the Russian Orthodox and Roman catholic churches in places of Palestine. It was fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula between the Russians and the British, French and Ottoman Turkish. Both sides were unable to adequately manage and command their forces, resulting in disproportionate death totals. Russia was forced to accept peace terms. -
The Alaska Purchase
The U.S. bought the entire region of Alaska from the Russian government. Following the Crimean War (see timespan), Russia was nervous that Alaska would be too easily conquered by the British in the event of a future war between the two nations. So Russia decided to cut its losses with the land. -
Confederation
Canadian confederation was the process in uniting the British colonies of the Province of Canada with the colonies of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick into one single federation formally known as the Dominion of Canada. -
British Columbia joins Canada
The province of British Columbia unites with the Dominion of Canada, four years after confederation, ending American aspirations of controlling the Pacific Coast. -
The Klondike Gold Rush
Canada desired a direct route from the Klondike Gold fields to the Pacific fjords, however the United States wanted to keep their control of the territory. -
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Attempts at a Resolution
A joint commission attempted to resolve these issues during this time, but failed. -
An International Tribunal
The tribunal contained 3 Americans, 2 Canadians and the Lord Chief Justice of England. The goal was to clarify how the ocean coasts of Alaska should be defined. The U.S. argued that the coast should be defined where the mainland touches Pacific waters, whereas Canadians argued that the coast was at the western boundary of the channel islands. The Lord Chief Justice of England sided with the U.S., sending the Canadian population into a strong wave of anti-British sentiment and ideology. -
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Four Treaties Negotiated between U.S. and Canada
These treaties pertained to the environment between the two neighbouring countries. The Inland Fisheries Treaty (1908), The 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty, The 1911 Pacific Fur Seal Convention (with Japan and Russia) and the 1916 Migratory Birds Convention. -
Creation of a Department of External Affairs
Following the loss of the Alaskan Boundary Dispute, Canada created its first, however small, department of external affairs, remaining determined to negotiate with the U.S. independently. -
The 1909 Water Boundary Treaty
Despite such strains between the two countries, a success story was developed in cross-border water governance between the two. The Water Boundary Treaty serves as one of the longest standing water-related treaties in the world. -
The Alaska Boundary Dispute's Significance to Contemporary Canada
Despite such loss in the negotiations, the event marked the moment that Canada as a nation began to distinguish its own individual political interests aside from those of Great Britain and the United States. Canadian frustrations with the loss inconsequently may have contributed to the rejection of free trade with the U.S. Furthermore, it enhanced the Canadian desire to have full control over foreign policy.
