Spain's Golden Age

Hermandad formed

1190

Cortes created (1200s)

1200

In I + F's reign continues to recognise customs from the mid 1200s.

Mesta established

Jul 1, 1273

An organisation that united various associations of sheep owners and decided on important privileges in return for financial contributions.

Corregidores created (1300s)

1300

Alcabala tax created

1342

Provides 80% of royal revenue in I + F's reign.

Royal Council formed

1385

Disturbances in Toledo

Jan 27, 1449

Anti-converso riots spread through the city. Conversos were attacked during a revolt against taxation imposed by King John II of Castile. They were accused of siding with the tax collectors. 300 of them decided to band together and defend themselves. During the attack 1 Christian was killed. In response, 22 conversos were murdered and numerous houses burned. In one incident, Hebrew books were found in a New Christian regidor's library and accusations of heresy were made.

Fall of Constantinople

May 29, 1453

The capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire by an invading army of the Ottoman Empire revived the call for a crusade against Granada

Henry IV becomes King of Castile

Jul 21, 1454

Henry IV resumes Reconquista

Jul 1, 1455

In an atmosphere of renewed Catholic fervour after the Fall of Constantinople, Henry resumed the crusade against the Moors. So from 1455-1457, 6 full-scale military incursions were made into Granada but achieved nothing of importance or significance.

Royal Council reformed

1459

By Henry IV, who insisted 8 of 12 members must be letrados.

Joanna la Beltraneja born

Jul 1, 1462

She was the daughter of Henry IV yet the Archbishops of Toledo and Seville claimed she was illegitimate and therefore Henry was impotent and Joanna unfit to be heiress to the throne. The gossip and ambiguity over her parents continues from this point forward
'Beltraneja' literally means 'daughter of Beltran', as this is the man everyone assumed to be Joanna's father NOT Henry IV

France occupies Cerdagne and Roussillon

Jul 1, 1462

Regions in Catalonia

Henry IV sacks Marquis of Villena

Jul 1, 1464

Henry IV sacked his principle minister, the Marquis of Villena, in favour of Beltran de la Cueva (the rumoured father of Joanna). This is a move by Henry to prove that he is by no means impotent, instead potent and powerful. However, he is now missing the money and loyalty that the Marquis had. The Marquis had been authoring the gossip over the illegitimacy of Joanna and would eventually return with company.

The Farce of Avila

Period: Jun 5, 1465 to Jul 5, 1468

Henry IV was ceremonially deposed (replaced) by the senior nobility of Castile and Alfonso (Henry's brother) pronounced king. There were now 2 kings and this event was known as the 'Farce of Avila' (everyone thought it was ridiculous)

Civil Disturbances

Period: Jul 1, 1465 to Jul 1, 1468

Civil disturbances arose as the aristocrats of Spain resented Henry IV's impotency, following the Farce of Avila and throughout Alfonso's reign

Burning of conversos at Llerena

Sep 1, 1467

Discovery and immediate burning of 2 conversos for practising Judaism - visible proof of the antisemitism that the majority of Castilians held

Isabella recognised as heir to Castile

Jul 1, 1468

The Marquis of Villena was recalled back into power in the government office. Isabella (Henry's step-sister) was recognised as the heir to Castile, instead of Joanna la Beltraneja - denying her right to be queen through gossip. Henry is back on the throne and Beltran is sacked.

Alfonso dies

Jul 1, 1468

The king dies of plague. A monarch was still required, one that leads the nobility. Spain never considered to turn into a republic.

The Archbishop of Toledo condemns the segregation of Old and New Christians

Jul 1, 1468

He made it clear that anyone that is baptised, no matter what religion, is made into a 'new man' and so all Christians were the same. He said the true evil lay in those who sought to divide Christians in refusing to accept either Old Christians or conversos. He forbade any guilds to continue being associated on racial lines under the threat of excommunication (worst thing the Church could do). At this point, however, the split was irretrievable.

Ferdinand and Isabella (Trastamara cousins) marry

Oct 19, 1469

Ferdinand meets Isabella and they are married within hours. Ferdinand is 17 and Isabella 18. With this, the Marquis changes his opinion of the rightful heir to the Castile throne back to Joanna, who is merely 7 years old. He panics and fears the Archbishop has manipulated him.
I chooses Ferdinand over Charles, Richard and Alfonso, because Ferdinand brought military strength (with his siege military experts imported from Aragon and a navy) and was skilled in diplomacy & international relations

Civic riots in Valladoid

Sep 1, 1470

Conversos were attacked by a mob believing that under Isabella's reign, anti-Jewish riots would be legalised. King Henry interceded and much damage was averted.

Isabella of Aragon/Queen of Portugal born

Oct 2, 1470

Isabella and Ferdinand welcomed their first daughter, Isabella

Pope ratifies the marriage

Dec 1, 1471

The Pope permisses Ferdinand and Isabella's marriage. They haven't been able to obtain his permission before this point as they are cousins and the marriage is a farce to secure the alliance of Castile and Aragon. The Archbishop handled the marriage in 1469, making it happen without the formal approval of the Pope

Charles, duc de Berry, dies

May 24, 1472

Son to King Louis XI of France. Could no longer be proposed as a husband to Joanna la Beltraneja so Joanna's claim to the throne shrank as support for Isabella grew

Pedro VI transfers his support to Ferdinand

Jul 1, 1472

Pedro Gonzalez de Mendoza was consequently awarded with a Cardinalship. By the end of 1472, the entire Mendoza family supported Isabella

Constable of Castile

1473

Henry IV awards to the Velasco family - this is not taken away from them during I + F's assault on noble power and they stay in charge of 250+ towns

Conversos expelled from Cordoba

Mar 14, 1473

First massacre of Conversos. Due to the populace's jealousy of the them holding many important positions in the court and society. After the massacre, a decree was issued prohibiting them from living in Cordoba. This process of jealousy, accusations, massacre and decree led to the accusations of heresy and, finally, to the Inquisition.

Further support for Isabella

Jul 1, 1473

Both Medina Sidonia and Andre Cabrera declare their support and Cabrera had access to Castile's treasury in Segovia - HUGE advantage for Isabella

Introduction of the 'Servicio y Montazgo'

Jul 1, 1473

A tax paid to the Crown by sheep farmers

Aragonese Cortes meets just 7 times

Period: 1474 to 1516

In the whole reign of F + I

Nobles own all the land in Castile + finance weak

Jul 1, 1474

Thanks to Henry's impotency, he failed to stand up against the nobles, allowing them to claim all the land in Castile.
In addition to this, the Crown's funds were in dire straits. Of the 73 million maravedis of revenue expected, only 11 million were received. The rest had been pocketed by tax farmers or simply not collected.

The Peripatetic Monarchs

Period: Jul 1, 1474 to Jul 1, 1476

The Catholic Monarchs travel from town to town without a base or castle, touring Castile to gain support of civilians. Showing they are potent monarchs that are concerned for their people.

Isabella extends royal patronage

Dec 1, 1474

On her accession, she did this to entice further support, awarding the Admiral of Castile to Enriquez and the Constable of Castile to Velasco. The Count of Benavente also offered her support

Henry IV of Castile dies

Dec 11, 1474

Occured against a backdrop of rebellion, conspiracies and daily crimes of violence. Uncertainty over the succession provoked disorder within the kingdom and invited invasion from outside.
Hereditary succession was unfeasible as the end of Henry's reign was confused by the three conflicting rival claimants to the throne. (J, F and I)
Furthermore, Henry's reign was plagued by weak kingship, civil war and chaos, so the collapse of law and order on the death of the king had a cumulative quality.

Isabella coronated

Dec 13, 1474

She fails to alert her husband to her coronation and assumes the position of a king. In the ceremony, she is led through the streets of Segovia by her chief steward holding aloft an unsheathed sword. This appropriation of the phallic symbol of royal authority by a female sovereign had a monumental impact and certified her potency and validity as the ruler of Castile.

The Marquis submits to Isabella

Jan 1, 1475

In early 1475, the Marquis of Villena submitted to Isabella only to rise again later - he is constantly changing his mind and is conflicted between Joanna and Isabella

Segovia Agreement

Jan 15, 1475

Signed between Isabella and Ferdinand and showed they were together as one public figure but with Isabella as the senior partner (see mini mm)

Archbishop submits to Isabella

Jul 1, 1475

The Archbishop of Toledo also sides with Isabella, yet in 1476, he is firmly with Joanna.

Battle of Toro

Mar 1, 1476

Ferdinand and Isabella defeat King Alfonso of Portugal. He raided Castile in support of Joanna la Beltraneja, who he felt as though the Crown had been stolen from. This was a succession crisis/civil war after Isabella's coronation. But as Alfonso was destroyed, so were Joanna, the Marquis and the Archbishop of Toledo and they were all now viewed as 'traitors'. Isabella consequently calls the first 'Cortes' in Toledo (parliament), consisting of townspeople to represent the towns.

Ferdinand and Isabella negotiate revenue

Mar 1, 1476

Had to appeal to the towns who were willing to fight noble oppression - continued into Cortes of Madrigal

Cortes of Madrigal

Apr 1, 1476

The Hermandad of 1190 revived by Isabella to create the 'Santa Hermandad'. This placed hermandades under a unified central control in the form of a council (Junta). The Bishop of Cartagena acted as the representative of the Crown in this. Now, Ferdinand could levy taxes and consult cities easily (1491-2, Crown received 64m maravedis from the Junta). Every settlement was ordered to create a local hermandad. Each hermandad would send a representative to a central assembly (Junta General)

Juan de Cordoba executed

Jul 1, 1476

Isabella executes Juan de Cordoba for holding the town of Toledo in the name of Joanna la Beltraneja. This is an example of her exercising royal justice as he was seen as a 'traitor'. This was a glimpse of her destroying the opposition and securing her rule further.

Isabella promises no more taxation

Jul 1, 1476

Isabella visits Extramadura and Andalucia to promise no more taxation. This is a move to keep those who already support her on her side

Juros first introduced

Jul 1, 1476

Loans to the state that start at an interest of 7%

Isabella sends out a privateering ship a year

Period: Jul 1, 1476 to Jul 1, 1478

In order to intercept Portuguese ships as they returned home with goods from West Africa

Isabella wins over a rebellious mob in Segovia

Aug 1, 1476

Isabella rode quickly from Tordesillas and at the San Juan gate, she was warned not to enter due to danger. She persevered and rode through the gate alongside Count of Benevante and the Cardinal of Spain. She was told by the people that they wanted to get rid of absentee governor de Cabrera. She agreed and directed them to drive out all his possession of the tower, ensuring one of her servants would guard it instead. Her words put an end to the rebellion and minor officials were punished.

Mastership of Santiago

Nov 15, 1476

Becomes vacant in 1476, leaving 94 estates and a worth of 309,000 ducats without attendance. It equipped 1750+ cavalrymen. There was an intense rivalry for the position of master, John II advised his son Ferdinand to leave it be. The electors of the master met and Isabella famously rode 3 days and 3 nights to get Ferdinand the position. She failed but round up huge support and courage for doing so. Ferdinand eventually succeeded to the post of master in 1499

Isabella's ride to Cuenca

Dec 9, 1476

Isabella rose to Cuenca from Valladolid over 3 continuous days and nights to secure the Orders of Santiago for Ferdinand. At Cuenca, a mastership had become free (medieval crusading order where knights were kept in a fort - a free mastership is one where the master of the fort had died) and it was Isabella's intention to secure Ferdinand as the new master, gaining knights, land, horses and castles. Unsuccessful yet her piety was noted by her subjects - prepared to put self in danger for Castile.

Charles, Duke of Burgundy, dies

Jul 1, 1477

Also known as Charles duc de Berg (French)

Isabella arrives in Seville

Jul 1, 1477

Stayed for 15mths. On her arrival, she receives a personal confessor, Alonso de Hojeda - a Dominican prior. He devoted all his energy to making clear to Isabella that Jews and false converts posed a real threat. As he was by her side the entire trip, he found it easy to manipulate her into pursuing an Inquisition that would not only rid conversos but also give him an immense amount of power. Hojeda's preaching was one of the largest influences on Isabella's decision in asking for an Inquisition.

Isabella gives birth to Juan

Jun 30, 1478

The birth of Juan (John) gave Castile a male heir and Isabella's legacy could turn into a dynasty once she passed away. In the birth of this child was the opportunity to unite Castile and Aragon under one state under the name of Spain

Birth of John

Jun 30, 1478

Isabella and Ferdinand's only son and consequent heir to both the Castilian and Aragonese throne.

2nd Portuguese invasion

Jul 1, 1478

Ferdinand on hand to repel a 2nd invasion and there's little doubt that if the King of Portugal succeeded, the resistance to Isabella would've been much greater

Archbishop of Toledo calls for improved standards within the Church

Jul 1, 1478

Archbishop was Carillo at the time; shows an awareness within the Church that changes were necessary to improve standards

Conquest of the Canary Islands

Period: Jul 1, 1478 to Jul 1, 1496

The Catholic Monarchs armed and part financed the conquest of the islands not yet subjugated: Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. This conquest ended with the defeat of Tenerife and the integration of the Canaries Archipelago into the Kingdom of Castile.

Treaty with France

Oct 1, 1478

Declaring peace between the two

Isabella leaves Seville

Oct 1, 1478

Soon after, Hojeda uncovered evidence of a secret meeting of judaising conversos. This was the proof Isabella demanded to pursue the institution of an inquisition. He presented this to the government and they asked for report on the situation in Seville. The report was supported by the Arch. of Seville and Torquemada, a Dominican prior, and revealed throughout Seville, Andalucia and Castile, conversos were judaising. With this, F and I sent to Rome for the Inquisition.

The Spanish Inquisition established

Nov 1, 1478

The papal bull was issued by Pope Sixtus IV after he was convinced by Alonso de Hojeda and others that insincere conversos were becoming a great and grave problem and the only way to quell this problem would be the introduction of a full-time Inquisition. He agreed to the prospect and provided for the appointment of 2/3 priests over 40 years of age to be inquisitors and the powers of appointment/dismissal be handed to the Crown.

War of Succession

Jul 1, 1479

Was won under the rule and army of Isabella

Ferdinand becomes King of Aragon

Jul 1, 1479

His father, John II, died and he inherited the throne. There was no threat to the throne.

Isabella appoints her own nominee

Jul 1, 1479

To the bishopric of Cuenca; challenges the rule that all clerical appointments were in the gift of the Papacy

Joanna la Beltraneja retires to a convent

Jul 1, 1479

Retired to a convent in Portugal after being given the ultimatum of either entering a convent, or marrying Isabella's one-year-old son John when he came of age (and if he then consented). Joanna chose to enter the Convent of Santa Clara in Coimbra, and the ceremony was witnessed by Isabella, who praised her decision. She was not incarcerated in the convent, and was eventually allowed to reside in the Castle of São Jorge in Lisbon.

Spain assists the 'Knight Hospitallers'

Period: Jul 1, 1479 to Jul 1, 1480

When Rhodes is besieged by the Turks (Catholicism vs Islam).

The Treaty of Alcacovas

Sep 4, 1479

Signed between the Catholic Monarchs of Castile and Aragon and Afonso and his son, Prince John of Portugal. Put an end to the War of Castilian Succession, which ended with a victory for Isabella and Ferdinand on land and a Portuguese victory on the sea. The 4 signed peace treaties reflected this - Isabella was recognised as Queen of Castile whilst Portugal reached hegemony in the Atlantic Ocean. Isabella gains the Canary Islands but Portuguese continue to control the coast of West Africa.

Council of Castile formed

1480

Vasco de Gama finds a new way to India (1480s)

1480

The Portuguese explorer travels around the coast of Africa, securing a route of spice trade for Portugal - makes them incredibly rich and Columbus felt he had to compete.

Cortes of Toledo

Jul 1, 1480

First Cortes to be held in Isabella's reign. Introduced the Act of Resumption, which reclaimed half of all revenues lost by Henry IV to the nobility from 1464 onward. Corregidores (local administrative officials) were appointed to each town in Castile, ensuring royal control was dominant. The Royal Council (est.1385) was reformed by Henry in 1459 to ensure 8/12 members were letrados. Isabella in 1480 excluded noble influence completely, stating all 12 must be letrados.

Decree permits all peasants to leave their lord and freely seek another

Jul 1, 1480

Decree on pastures

Jul 1, 1480

Pastures previously used for arable farming were reverted for use in tending sheep as an initiative to boost the wool trade

1st inquisitors appointed

Sep 27, 1480

Posts issued to Juan de San Martin and Miguel de Morillo (both Dominicans) as well as Juan Ruiz de Medina, their adviser. With this, the Inquisition came into definitive existence, 2 years after it was initially granted. By mid-October, operations had already begun in Seville.

Mass exodus of conversos

Oct 1, 1480

The first result of the implementation of the Inquisition was over 4000 households of conversos fleeing Seville, Cordoba and Andalucia. Due to this, commerce severely declined in these areas yet, when informed of this, Isabella looked over this, stating the 'limpieza' (purity) of her land was the most important thing. She stated it was her God-given duty to rid the country of heresy.

First Auto de Fe in Seville

Feb 6, 1481

6 conversos burnt at the stake for alleged judaising and the sermon at the ceremony was preached by Hojeda

Hojeda dies

Feb 9, 1481

Only a few days after the first 'auto de fe', he is killed by the plague spreading through Seville. His triumph and power was very short-lived

Diego de Susan burnt

Feb 12, 1481

One of the most prominent and wealthiest conversos in Seville began to organise an army to resist the Inquistion, which he felt was compromising his authority as Dominicans were sure to become the most powerful men in Castile. Opposing the Inquisition was treason however and Susan's daughter betrayed his plot to the authorities. Susan was worth 10m maravedis and all this went to Isabella when he died - this was equal to the amount the Crown was annually receiving in tax.

Spain help Naples against a Turkish invasion

Jul 1, 1481

Along with Portugal, they expel Turks from Otranto, Italy

Isabella and Ferdinand toured Castile

Period: Jul 1, 1481 to Jul 1, 1482

Shwoing off their new-born son, John, and continuing their peripatetic reign.

Converso victims of the Inquisition

Period: Jul 1, 1481 to Jul 1, 1488

Between 1481 and 1488, an estimated 700 men and women were burned at the stake, 5000 were forced to "repent" and approximately 3000 families fled

Granada launches a surprise attack against Zahara

Dec 1, 1481

As part of a reprisal for a Christian raid. The town fell, and the population was enslaved. This attack proved to be a great provocation, and factions in favour of war in Andalusia used it to rally support for a counter-strike, quickly moving to take credit for it, and backed a wider war.

Pope revokes powers of the initial bull

Jan 29, 1482

Sixtus IV listened to the protests of the Spanish clergy in which they condemned the abuses committed by the inquisitors. In response, he invalidated the powers granted by the initial bull and made it so the inquisitors could only proceed with their work if their bishop permitted them to do so. This placed the inquisitors under the papacy's rule so the Catholic Monarchs no longer received any income from or had any control over the Inquisition.

Seven more inquisitors appointed

Feb 11, 1482

The papal brief issued by Rome appointed exclusively Dominican friars, including Tomas de Torquemada. This was in firm response to the pope's revoking of the bull. The pope didn't surrender, however, and instead made several firm gestures in favour of conversos.

Pope issues the 'most extraordinary bull in the history of the Inquisition'

Apr 18, 1482

Accused Ferdinand of only wanting the Inquisition due to his 'lust for wealth' (a deadly sin - serious accusation, closest thing to declaring war on Spain without actually doing so). Professed that F didn't care about the faith side of the Inquisition and condemned the fact that so many 'true and faithful Christians' had been wrongly imprisoned and tortured by the institution. He declared that heretics be entitled to a fair and just trial (first time ever) and appeals be allowed to Rome.

Ferdinand protests to Rome

May 1, 1482

He wasn't going to let the Pope tske away such a large source of income or control as well as his reputation - he had to be seen as a strong King that held his ground and could not be easily overpowered. The pope's revocation came at a time where there was already a conflict over the Inquisition being installed in Aragon and Ferdinand wanted to quell this as soon as possible - the only way he saw this happening was the redistribution of the Inquisition's control back into his own hands.

Ferdinand writes back to the Pope

May 13, 1482

The pope's bull was so in favour of converso claims that Ferdinand outrightly suggested that they had some influence over the Pope. He explicitly accused the Pope of being overrun by conversos, because the bull was so unlike anything he would typically write

Ferdinand formally takes command at Alhama after its capture

May 14, 1482

Sieges were fought in mountainous terrain which did not lend itself to cavalry operations. Abu Hasan attempted to retake Alhama by siege in March, but failed. Reinforcements from the rest of Castile and Aragon averted the possibility of retaking Alhama in April. This seizure and Alhama's subsequent royal endorsement are said to be the formal beginning of the Granada War.

Pedro VI becomes Archbishop of Toledo

Jul 1, 1482

New tribunal set up in Cordoba

Jul 1, 1482

An institution to carry out the Inquisition trials and sentence people - representative of how the Inquisition was being legally instituted across Castile, there was no escape from its reach

Papacy agrees to F + I having the right of patronage

Jul 1, 1482

Cruzada tax introduced

Jul 1, 1482

The Granada war had to be paid for, and Ferdinand and Isabella could not meet the costs themselves. They relied on the cruzada tax granted by Pope Sixtus IV. The tax consisted of a 10% levy on Spanish benefices together with 1/3 of the clergy's revenue from tithes. The tax yielded 808 million maravedis over Isabella's reign but this still didn't cover all the Crown's costs. It was originally granted annually until 1485, but Pope Innocent VIII granted it for the duration of the war.

The Granada War

Period: Jul 1, 1482 to Jul 1, 1492

The Capitulation of Granada - 'Reconquista'. The crusade against Moors/Muslims in Granada. After 10 years, on January 2, 1492 King Boabdil surrendered, marking success for Castile and Aragon and defeat for Granada and all Moors in Spain.

Military costs rise

Period: Jul 1, 1482 to Jul 1, 1504

Annual costs quadruple from 20 million maravedis to 80 million maravedis - it didn't help that the monarchs weren't particularly frugal with their spending.

Aragon left unvisited for 5 years by Ferdinand

Period: Jul 1, 1482 to Jul 1, 1487

Ferdinand spent a total of less than 3 years in his kingdom of Aragon, instead focussing on Castile with Isabella. Furthermore, he spent 4 in Catalonia and 6 months in Valencia.

No Cortes met

Period: Jul 1, 1482 to Jul 1, 1498

In 16 years, no Cortes met as Isabella relied on the Hermandad to supply troops and money. Showed it wasn't a regular part of the government and that there had been an improvement in Castilian economic affairs.

Council of Inquisition created

1483

Annual income totals 52m maravedis

Jul 1, 1483

Almost a 5x increase from 1474

Alcabala tax comes into force

Jul 1, 1483

Granted 3 years prior at the Cortes of Toledo; yielded 1.25m ducats per year

New tribunals at Ciudad Real and Jaen

Jul 1, 1483

Typical of the trials of the Inquisition, many of the prime witnesses were members of the accused's own family. The tribunal at Ciudad Real was only temporary and permanently transferred to Toledo in 1485 but still burnt 52 victims alive and condemned 220 to death in their absence in its first 2 years. In the great auto de fe at Ciudad Real on 23 Feb 1484, 30 people were burnt alive and 40 in effigy

The 'Suprema' established

Jul 1, 1483

The 'Consejo de la Suprema y General Inquisicion' was a council comprised of 3 ecclesiastics and a president, the Inquisitor General. The first General was Tomas de Torquemada, previously the prior of the Dominican convent of Segovia. He united the Inquisitions of the Spanish crown under a single head. By 1483, the Inquisition had taken firm root in Castile and had been given its imperative administrative organisation.

Boabdil captured by the Count of Cabra

Jul 1, 1483

Abu Hasan's brother, al-Zagal, defeated a large Christian raiding force in the hills of the Axarquia east of Málaga. However, Boabdil was taken prisoner at Lucena by the Christians who were able to defeat and capture the King of Granada. Resulted in a Trojan Horse understanding between F and Boabdil (F realised that Boabdil secretly intended to overthrow him)

Pope suspended the bull and granted another

Oct 17, 1483

He had no other option to concede to Ferdinand to prove he wasn't in fact overrun by conversos. Papal co-operation was then secured by the next papal bull, which appointed Torquemada Inquisitor General of Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia, uniting the Inquisitions of the Spanish crown under a single head. The new tribunal came directly under control of the crown and the only institution whose authority ran in all territories of Spain.

Great auto de fe at Ciudad Real

1484

30 burnt alive and 40 in effigy.

Existing inquisitors removed from Valencia

Mar 1, 1484

2 existing inquisitors represented the revived medieval institution from 1481 but were removed in 1484 after not achieving much. Torquemada appointed 2 new people in their place, who began work in November 1484. There was heavy opposition to this, with people asking that the inquisitors be 'natives of the realm'. Ferdinand stated in response that fueros should never be used to shield heresy.

Catalonia refuses the new Inquisition

Apr 1, 1484

Despite the medieval Inquisition being moribund. Barcelona received papal permission to have their own local inquisitor in 1461 - Joan Comes. So when the Aragonese Cortes of Tarazona met in 1484, Catalonia didn't send deputies to approve the new Inquisition. In May Torquemada nominated 2 inquisitors for Catalonia & revoked the position of Comes. Catalans exploded into anger, writing to F in protest. Barcalona's legal and Church authorities ruled Comes was the only inquisitor. F stood his ground.

Torquemada appoints first 2 inquisitors for Aragon

May 4, 1484

They set to work immediately and held their first 'autos de fe' on the 10 May/3 June 1485. The activity of the inquisitors concerned everyone who was loyal to the fueros of Aragon, Old and New Christians alike. Public opposition grew large and F sent a letter to chief nobles/deputies justifying his position but resistance continued.

Plot of Corpus Christi

Jun 1, 1484

In Toledo, one of the most important converso centres, a plot against the inquisitors was planned for the feast of Corpus Christi. Local conversos were accused of plotting to assassinate the two newly appointed inquisitors. Under the direction of the mayor, Gomez Manrique, six of them were hung, and local Rabbis were commanded to have their communities report any backsliding of Conversos.

Teruel resistance to the Inquisition

Jul 1, 1484

2 inquisitors were sent to the city from Saragossa to establish a tribunal in the city but they were refused permission to enter the city gates by the magistrates. This set off a long ordeal that ended in fueros being a dead issue by 1485

Torquemada publishes a new set of guidelines

Jul 1, 1484

28 rules that Catholics could impose on and report about their secretly judaising neighbours.
(e.g. 'if you see your neighbours are wearing clean and fancy clothes on Saturdays, they are Jews' - Sabbath)

Revolt in Galicia

Jul 1, 1485

After a revolt broke out in Galicia and both Isabella and Ferdinand travelled to a remote area to deal with the trouble. The Count of Lemos surrendered upon their arrival and Pedro Madruga was executed in 1486.

Civil war ensued among the Moors

Jul 1, 1485

By this time, much of the west of the kingdom had fallen to Ferdinand

Cadiz

Jul 1, 1485

I + F take Cadiz from the Marquis of Cadiz but then compensated him with other properties so he was no worse off

Pedro Arbues killed by conversos

Sep 15, 1485

The inquisitor of Saragossa was stabbed in the back in the city's cathedral by 8 conspirators hired by conversos in protest of the implementation of the Inquisition in the city. Arbues died 2 days later. When it was discovered that the assassins were judaisers, the whole mood of Saragossa and Aragon changed to one of resentment against conversos. Mobs roamed the streets in search of conversos and a national assembly voted to suspend fueros while the search for the assassins continued.

Catalan counsellors complain to Ferdinand

Dec 1, 1485

As the conflict between Catalonia and the insitution continued, large numbers of conversos migrated from Barcelona. This put the economy of the city at risk. In May 1486, they warned F that the city would be 'totally depopulated and ruined if the Inquisition were introduced'.

Autos begin in Saragossa

Dec 28, 1485

The murderers of Arbues pay for their crimes in successive 'autos de fe' from 30 June to 15 December 1486. Francisco de Santa Fe, son of the famous converso Jeronimo and a counsellor of the governor of Aragon committed suicide by jumping from a tower and his remains were burnt in the auto of 15 December

Pope sacks all the existing papal inquisitors in Aragon

Feb 1, 1486

A way around the Catalan problem. The initiative to appoint inquisitors in all towns was handed back to Torquemada, who appointed Alonso de Espina (Dominican prior from Castile ) as Catalonia's new inquisitor. He entered the city in June 1487, still subject to protest from the counsellors. Now the Inquisition was firmly implanted but there were hardly any conversos left for them to accuse - throughout 1488, only 7 victims were burnt and in 1489 only three.

Count of Lemos

Jul 1, 1486

In a bid to restore royal justice, Isabella and Ferdinand personally visited the Count of Lemos and ordered him to return disputed lands and pay compensation to his victims

Papacy extends patronage of F + I to Granada

Jul 1, 1486

Peasants allowed to sell their produce with no legal restriction

Jul 1, 1486

Zaragoza council suspended

Jul 1, 1487

After a dispute

Mastership of Calatrava

Jul 1, 1487

Master died, leaving 51 estates and 135,000 ducats worth vacant. Ferdinand assembled for the election of a new grand master, a Bull from Innocent VIII that invested him with authority to administer the order, and to this decree he compelled the electors to submit. Ferdinand received the mastership for life.

Non-compliance of Aragonese Cortes

1488

They refuse to comply with Ferdinand's approval measures

New tribunal introduced in Mallorca

Jul 1, 1488

Introduced without incident or significant opposition and operations began immediately. The 2 inquisitors found hundreds of cases to keep them occupied from 1488-91. 11 May 1493 saw the burning of 3 people and 47 effigies of absent fugitives.

Crown wins the right to hear appeals against ecclesiastical decisions

Jul 1, 1488

In Valladolid rather than Rome, meaning the Papacy lost revenue to the Crown

Portugal reject Columbus

Jul 1, 1488

They refuse to fund his voyage - no need for them to as they have found a way to India and the spice trade around the coast of Africa.

War with Brittany

Period: Jul 1, 1488 to Jul 1, 1493

Won under Isabella

Treaty of Medina del Campo

Jul 1, 1489

Secured a Spanish-English alliance through the proposed marriage of Catherine of Aragon (daughter of F and I) to Arthur (heir of the English throne)

Council formed to administer orders of masterships

Jul 1, 1489

Within the royal government

Fall of Baza

Jul 1, 1489

El Zagal submitted to F and I, choosing to be subject to them rather than his hated nephew, Boabdil. Boabdil responded contrary to his agreement with F and I, determined to keep fighting for the remnant of Granada. This spurred Ferdinand on to finish once and for all with the Nasrid kingdoms.

Isabella grants Columbus an annual allowance

Jul 1, 1489

Of 12,000 maravedis as well as part of his future conquered lands, despite her committee branding his plan as impractical

Crown borrows from Aristocracy

Oct 3, 1489

The Crown could only balance its budget by borrowing from the aristocracy and offering them high-interest bonds known as 'juros'

Resident Spanish ambassadors in European states

1490

(1490s) States included Rome, Burgundy, Germany and England

Major islands conquered in the Canary Islands

1490

(1490s) Islands made a part of Castile, making an advantageous stopping point for Spanish ships travelling to and from the New World.

Converso accused of stealing the Host

Jun 1, 1490

Benito Garcia was staying in an inn in Astorga when some Old Christians claimed to have found a stolen Host (consecrated unleavened bread of the Mass) in his luggage. People who did this were considered to be inspired by the devil, an accusation commonly made against Jews. This case was taken by the bishop of Astorga and placed into the hands of the Inquisition in Valladolid, which transferred the case to Avila, Torquemada's hometown.

The 'Holy Child of La Guardia'

Dec 17, 1490

10 conversos and Jews were accused of kidnapping a child, taking them to a cave and crucifying them for ritual purposes. Although no child was ever declared missing and no distraught parents found, they were tortured for over a year. They were declared guilty in Nov 1491 of Host desecration and the taking of the child's heart to use in sorcery. All eight were burned at the stake in the town of Avila on the auto of 14th Nov. The child acquired the name 'Cristobal' (Christ bearer)

Barcelona auto de fe

Jun 10, 1491

3 people burnt alive and 139 condemned in their absence - a stark difference to the 3 people burnt in the whole of 1488, showing the Inquisition was getting well underway.

Alcabala tax doubled

Jul 1, 1491

A Castilian sales tax that levied at around 10% (doubled from 5% in 1491). The main source of royal revenue throughout the 15th Century, producing 90% of the royal income. Collected by tax-farmers, since the Crown had no tax official other than on royal estates. In the course of her reign, ordinary tax income rose to 150m maravedis in 1481, 269m in 1496 and 320m in 1510. At the same time, extraordinary tax income rose from 52m in 1483 to 112m in 1504.

Terms of surrender for the Moors negotiated

Oct 1, 1491

Surrender was a long time coming, with feelings of honourable surrender being dominantly felt in the Moorish camp in 1490. These terms were relaxed, liberal and not enforced.

Treaty of Granada (Capitulation of Granada)

Nov 25, 1491

Signed between Boabdil, the Sultan of Granada, and Ferdinand and Isabella, ending the Granada War. It provided a short truce, followed by the surrender of the sovereignty of Granada to the Catholic monarchs of Spain. The treaty guaranteed a set of rights to the Moors, including religious tolerance and fair treatment in return for their surrender and capitulation. Stated importantly that 'no Moor shall be obliged to become a Christian against his will'.

Program for Moors in Granada

Period: 1492 to 1499

Generous under Talavera (the 1st Archbishop of Granada) as he did not believe in forced conversion, opting for gentle persuasion instead.

Boabdil surrenders

Jan 2, 1492

Marks the victory of the Catholic Monarchs and Catholicism and the defeat of Granada and Islam. Boabdil presented, in person, the keys of the Alhambra Palace to F and I and the crucifix and royal standard were raised above the highest tower, signalling the victory of the Monarchs.

Isabella enters Granada

Jan 6, 1492

Picked the holiest day in the Catholic calendar, Epiphany, to enter Granada. Enforced the significance of the win for Catholicism and reinforced her utter devotion to the religion, so much so that it governed and took presidence over her decisions. It is this move that prompts the Pope to award her and F the title of 'the Catholic Monarchs'.

Expulsion of the Jews

Mar 31, 1492

The Alhambra Decree/Edict of Expulsion was an edict issued by I and F, ordering the expulsion of practicing Jews from the Castile and Aragon and its territories and possessions by 31 July of the same year. Any found within the borders after this time were killed. Some fled to Portugal/N. Africa, some took ship with Columbus and some remained as 'secret Jews'. After his success, Torquemada retired

Tribunals

Jul 1, 1492

Castile had tribunals at Avila, Cordoba, Jaen, Medina del Campo, Segovia, Siguenza, Toledo and Valladoid. The southern tribunals were far more active than those in the north. In its first 8 years, the Seville tribunal burnt over 700 people and punished over 5000.

Isabella receives Columbus in the Cordoba Alcazar

Jul 1, 1492

To support his plans after her new-found confidence following Reconquista and the Expulsion of the Jews. She promised Columbus a portion of all the profits and the position of Viceroy General of the newly-conquered lands. She branded him the 'Admiral of the Seas' and ordered the royal treasurer to shuffle funds among royal accounts to fund his voyage.

Columbus makes landfall in the Bahamas

Oct 12, 1492

Marks his discovery of the Americas

Discovery of the New World

Oct 12, 1492

Columbus discovers new lands, sailing on behalf of F and I. This discovery would fund the next 100 years of Spanish history with the mounds of silver and other profitable natural resources that could be sold. This rounded off a golden year for Isabella, and to her the incredibly successful year was divine approval for her Catholic devotion

Ferdinand invited Jews back but only as conversos

Nov 1, 1492

He and Isabella recognised their monumental mistake in expelling all Jews. They lost a governing level in society due to the Jews leaving, lost money due to the Jewish population holding all the secrets of the growing wool trade and added to the converso problem by prompting 200,000 Jews to remain in Spain as fake converts to Catholicism.

Columbus builds Fort Navidad

Dec 24, 1492

In Santa Domingo, marking the 1st establishment of Spanish territory in the New World.

Columbus tours from Seville to Barcelona

1493

Showcases people and raw materials he brought back from his first voyage to the New World. Hailed a hero.

Boabdil and 6000 Moors leave Granada

1493

Assistance was given to those who wished to leave and the few Moorish nobles left were given government positions to keep them content.

Treaty of Barcelona

Jan 19, 1493

Signed between France and Aragon. The French give up Cerdagne and Roussillon in order to secure their own frontiers. Also saw the first indication that Spain would wish to take Naples

Nobles no longer permitted to vote in Royal Council

Jul 1, 1493

All councillors from then on were to be letrados

Election by lot introduced

Jul 1, 1493

Pope awards 'Catholic Monarchs' title

1494

Pope Alexander VI grants them the title for their crusading efforts, particularly in Granada.

Council of Aragon created

1494

The Tordesillas Line

Jun 7, 1494

Established by a papal bull. All lands west of the line would belong exclusively to Spain in return for converting the natives to Catholicism. Consequently, they received the whole of South America, excluding Brazil.

Mastership of Alcantara

Jul 1, 1494

Master dies, leaving vacant 38 estates and 115,000 ducats worth. Pope Alexander VI invested Ferdinand with the grand mastership of Alcántara for life.

French invade Italy

Jul 1, 1494

Leads to renewed conflict between France and Spain

Consulado established

Jul 1, 1494

A trading body that granted the wool trade with Flanders and Northern Europe

First Italian War

Period: Oct 1, 1494 to Apr 1, 1498

Charles VIII of France against the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and an alliance of Italian powers led by Pope Alexander VI. During this, Spanish forces under the control of Cordoba attempt to take Naples but their light cavalry was at a large disadvantage compared to the heavily-armed French one - consequently, they did not achieve as much as initially hoped.

Council of Military Orders created

1495

Marriage alliance with the HRE

1495

Preliminary alliance - included a wedding of I + F's son to Maximilian’s daughter. Anti-French

Spanish forces attempt to challenge French garrison

Period: 1495 to 1497

That occupied Naples

Pedro VI, Archbishop of Toledo, dies

Jan 11, 1495

Queen Isabella visited and nursed him on his deathbed in Guadalajara. It is said that he recommended her to choose as his successor the Franciscan Jimenez de Cisneros, a man who had no likeness to himself save in political faculty and devotion to the authority of the Crown.

France occupy Naples

Feb 1, 1495

Part of First Italian War

End of Aragonese Hermandad

Jul 1, 1495

Ferdinand suggested introducing the Hermandad into Aragon , first in Huesca in 1487, but popular opposition to the organisation ended int in 1495.

Cisneros becomes the Archbishop of Toledo

Jul 1, 1495

Succeeds Mendoza and inherits the office of chancellor of Castile along with the diocese (the richest and most powerful in Spain). Immediately gets tid of all the lax, conventual Franciscan houses in favour of the Observants, which attracted intense opposition. By 1498 the reforms were expanded to include not only Franciscans but other mendicant orders as well. The resistance was so fierce that four hundred monks and friars left for Africa with their wives"and converted to Islam.

War with Naples

Period: Jul 1, 1495 to Jul 1, 1504

Won under Isabella

Military expenses total 500m maravedis

Period: Jul 1, 1495 to Jul 1, 1504

Costs total 80m/year, totalling 2/3 of all the Crown's income (increased 4x since 1482)

Ferdinand joins the Holy League

Jul 1, 1496

Consisted of HRE, Spani, Papacy and Italian states all opposing the French

Philip marries Joanna the Mad

Oct 20, 1496

Philip is Maximilian's son, so this is seen as an anti-French move. Later gave birth to Charles

A uniform coinage system introduced

Jul 1, 1497

Across the realms of Spain

John, son of Isabella, dies

Oct 4, 1497

Leaves Isabella without an heir to continue the would-be family dynasty as he was her only child.

Small garrisons set up in Africa

1498

Some trade able to take place, slightly easing the problem of land shortage in Spain

Barcelona council reform

Jul 1, 1498

Introduced more local families into city politics and listening to the wider public's voice. The townspeople were regularly consulted and helped in improving the local government as well as protecting town's privileges from nobles. When councils were not administrated in her subjects' interests, she intervened

Hermandad formally dissolved

Jul 1, 1498

Isabella recognised the rural hermandades were becoming increasingly unpopular in the 1490s so formally dissolved them in 1498 as she accepted they were too brutal - shows she took an interest in her people's concerns and acted on them

Spanish attention turns to North Africa

Jul 1, 1498

Algiers becomes a vassal city (owed its allegiance to Spain) but an attempt to take Djerba, off Tunisia, fails. Only small garrisons set up and some trade able to take place but no permanent colonies established.

Castilian Cortes met 16 times

Period: Jul 1, 1498 to Jul 1, 1506

On average, only twice a year for 8 years as the Cortes was only consulted when the Crown faced political and financial crisis and support (i.e. money) from the people of Castile was needed

Vespucci discovers the Amazon River

1499

Amerigo Vespucci arrives in Brazil

1499

Cisneros visits Granada

1499

With F + I. At the same time, there is an uprising in the Alpujarras Mountains. Cisneros acts as I's personal confessor and upon finding little evidence of Moor conversion, he pushes Talavera aside and takes charge.

Ferdinand becomes the Master of Santiago

Jul 1, 1499

When Alfonso de Cárdenas died in 1493, Ferdinand induced the pope to assign to him the administration of the order and the Catholic Monarchs incorporated the Order into the Spanish Crown.

Second Italian War

Period: Jul 1, 1499 to Jul 1, 1504

Fought primarily by Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon, with the participation of several Italian powers. In the aftermath of the First Italian War, Louis was determined to press his claim on the thrones of Milan and Naples.

Uprising in the Alpujarras mountains

Nov 1, 1499

Launched a military response from F and I and, in March 1500, the defeated Moors were given the choice between conversion or emigration, thanks to the influence of the Arch. of Toledo (Ximenes Cisneros) over the Arch. of Granada

Moors given the option to convert or emigrate

1500

Cisneros a lot harsher

Spanish forces help Venice against the Turks

1500

Cordoba returns to Naples with new fighting methods and a different troop organisation. Venice successfully regained the St. George castle (capital of Cephalonia) from the Turks. This ensured Spanish possessions in the Mediterranean were protected

Charles V of Spain born

Feb 24, 1500

Son of Joanna the Mad and Philip the Fair, meaning he held a claim to both the Castilian and Aragonese thrones. His paternal grandfather was the emperor Maximilian of Habsburg. He spent his entire childhood in the Netherlands and raised as a renaissance prince in the Burgundian court of Brussels

Talavera states that Moors should be converted

Jul 1, 1500

He states that Moors in Granada should be converted and used as slaves because they would be 'better Christians'. In contrast to his previous statements in 1491.

Bishop of Valencia issues a reminder to his clergy

Jul 1, 1500

Reminds them not to 'gamble or fight bulls... in public' - represents the abuses/criticisms of the clergy and church

Emanuel I marries Maria

Jul 1, 1500

The heir to the Portuguese throne marries I + F's daughter, allowing the Spanish crown to turn their attention elsewhere without fearing a Portuguese invasion

All land reserved for sheep for an indetermined length of time

Jul 1, 1501

The Mesta owned 3 million sheep at this time

All unconverted Moors expelled

1502

Gibraltar and Cartagena (1502-3)

1502

Seized by Ferdinand but the defeated nobles are subsequently compensated showing the monarchs unwillingness to obliterate the nobility entirely. These bases were geographically essential naval bases for Atlantic/Mediterranean control.

Pragmatic issued expelling all unconverted Moors

Feb 1, 1502

From Granada and Castile, starkly contrasted to the lenient measures taken against them thus far.

Bad harvests

Period: Jul 1, 1502 to Jul 1, 1509

In response to this, the Crown undertook price-fixing measures that were unlikely to help the producer. Grain had to be imported, discouraging farming

Encomienda system established

1503

Initial system of governance in the New World - rushed due to urgency of protecting their newly-conquered territories.

Tax revenue increases to 26m/year

Jul 1, 1503

From 900,000

Spain win two important victories over French

Jul 1, 1503

At Cerignola, Italy. Led by Cordoba. Triumph for Ferdinand

House of Trade established

Jul 1, 1503

'Casa de contratacion' introduced to regulate and control trade with the New World

Duke of Medina's offer to Philip

1504

The Duke offers Philip of Burgundy 2000 cavalry and 50,000 ducats to keep Ferdinand out of Spain

Juros equal 112m ducats

1504

Number of corregidores fallen

1504

In Cordoba, the number of corregidores had fallen from 100 to 35 by Isabella's death, signifying the gradual loss of royal power and the growth of noble rule.

Naples becomes part of the Crown of Aragon

Jan 31, 1504

Treaty of Lyon - result of the Second Italian War. Between Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon. France ceded Naples to Spain and France and Spain defined their respective control of Italian territories. Spain controlled Sicily and southern Italy, giving it control of S. Europe by land and sea.

Crown income totals 112m maravedis/year

Jul 1, 1504

From 52m in 1483

Isabella dies

Nov 26, 1504

Decreed Joanna 'the Mad' to be Queen opposed to a foreign husband. Shows how much she valued Castilian inheritance. She further stated that, even though she was queen, Joanna and Philip must obey Ferdinand's order unquestioningly. Should Joanna be 'unwilling or unable to govern', however, Ferdinand should forfeit his title as King and be demoted to 'regent' until Charles became of age (reached 20 years old)

Cisneros' North African Crusade

Period: Dec 1, 1504 to Jul 1, 1509

Pope Alexander VI blessed an African crusade in 1494 (after the success of Reconquista) and the continuation of the cruzada to pay for it. Upon Isabella's death, Cisneros embarks on a North African crusade in honour of her. The land obtained through this mission was given to the Castilian nobility (reverse of the Act of Resumption)

Ferdinand marries Germaine de Foix of Navarre

Oct 1, 1505

Any children these two had would've had a claim to both the Castilian and Aragonese thrones, but they had none

Philip negotiates Ferdinand's withdrawal from Castile

Jun 27, 1506

Unhappy with the organisation of Castilian control by Isabella's will, Philip sailed to Spain to claim his wife's inheritance in early 1506. In the negotiation, Ferdinand handed over the Castilian government to his 'most beloved children' and retired to Aragon. The two soon signed another agreement asserting that Joanna was mentally incapable of ruling Castile and should be replaced by Philip. He was King 'regent' for a month.

Philip I dies and rebellion erupts

Sep 25, 1506

Unexpectedly, of a fever, after less than a month ruling Castile. Ferdinand returned to Castile with Cisneros and an army in 1507 and ruled as governor until his death.

Andalucian nobles

1507

Led by the Count of Urena, the nobles ally against Ferdinand. Spain is on the verge of civil war, just as it was in 1474.

America named after Vespucci

1507

Ferdinand's assault on the nobles

1508

F marches south with 4000 men and crushes the revolt against him.

Traditional Moorish dress and customs prohibited

1508

Unenforced

Juan Ponce de Leon discovers Puerto Rico

1508

On Ferdinand's orders

Alcala University founded

1508

By Cisneros. Allows for the formation of alumbrado groups and studies focus on new religious ideas and scripture - Erasmus' teachings popular here.

The Papacy extends patronage to the New World

Jul 1, 1508

Archbishop of Toledo establishes the Alcala University

Jul 1, 1508

Archbishop was Cisneros at the time

Prohibition of Islamic dress and customs

Jul 1, 1508

A pragmatic issued that prohibited the traditional dress and customs of Moors in Granada (and Castile), although this was not enforced

Council of Cruzada created

1509

CoA marries Henry VIII

Jun 11, 1509

She becomes Queen tenure of England (secures foreign relations with Spain). Costs the Spanish Crown 60m maravedis

War with Milan

Period: Jul 1, 1509 to Jul 1, 1516

Won

Ferdinand sworn in as regent

1510

Of Castile

Mexico and central America

1510

Explored by Spanish-funded explorers. More established cultures found.

Oran captured

1510

As part of the N. African crusade

Inquisition arrives in Granada

1511

Alongside this, a range of decrees were issued that limited the cultural identity of the Moors.

Ferdinand calls of N. African crusade

1511

Believed containment of French interests was much more urgent - France was threatening newly-conquered Naples.

The Inquisition arrives in Granada

Jul 1, 1511

The Office of Inquisition arrived in Granada to test the faith of new converts (Moriscos). A range of decrees were issued limiting the cultural identity of Moriscos (e.g. speaking Arabic was forbidden)

The Consulado established in Bilbao

Jul 1, 1511

Moves the wool trade monopoly from Burgos (moving it north)

Wheat prices rise by 44%

Period: Jul 1, 1511 to Jul 1, 1550

In Valladolid

Laws of Burgos introduced

1512

In the New World as an attempt to introduce government regulation.

Navarre becomes part of Castile

Jul 1, 1512

Ferdinand acquires the resources to invade Navarre and its fortresses - they all surrender within a few weeks and Castile gains Navarre. Prevents French invasions into Catalonia and Spain generally.

Ponce de Leon colonises Florida and Bimini

1514

The Polyglot Bible published

Jan 10, 1514

Written by Cisneros in Hebrew, Latin and Greek for wider study and consumption

Nobles plan to leave Spain

1515

Marquis of Priego and other nobles plan to leave Spain and take up service with Charles, but with Ferdinand's death in 1516 there becomes no need to. The noble unrest continued, however, with F's appointment of Cisneros as regent in the intermediate period.

Subsidy refused by Aragonese Cortes

1515

Conquest of the Caribbean

1515

Corregidores appointed to 32 towns

1515

On top of the 54 towns that already had them.

Foreign goods on the Spanish market

Period: 1515 to 1551

They pour onto the market, competing with native manufacturers. The Cortes petition 12 times on the matter.

Encabezamiento tax replaces the failing Alcabala

Jul 1, 1515

Ferdinand dies

Jan 23, 1516

On this, all his possessions went to Charles, along with the inheritance of the thrones of Castile and Aragon. Cisneros is regent of Castile for Charles (he was only 16) for a short while, ruling in an autocratic fashion and handling the Spanish conquest of Navarre. He soon, however, acceded to Charles' desire to become king.

Charles becomes the King of Spain

Jan 23, 1516

Upon his accession, he united the two, previously separate, states of Castile and Aragon to form one country - Spain. He was believed to be an 'absentee monarch' due to the number of realms under his control as he was the Holy Roman Emperor. He spent around 17 years of his reign in Spain but also had the longest absence from the country (14 years).

Cisneros acts as regent

Jan 24, 1516

Until Charles visits Spain. The Duke of Infantado and the Count of La Coruna vied to discredit Cisneros and replace him with Ferdinand I, Charles' younger brother.

Juros

Jul 1, 1516

By 1516, the Crown was paying out one third of its annual revenue in juros, thanks to its fall into debt overseen by Isabella

Financial reform collapsed

Jul 1, 1516

After both Isabella and Ferdinand's deaths, power went to the nobility as there was no longer a Hermandad to prevent corruption and uphold the Catholic Monarch's established rule. This extensive and massive fraud led to bankruptcy.

Crown income increases to 131m maravedis/year

Jul 1, 1516

From 112m in 1504 (+20m in 12 years)

Crown receives 11.9m ducats from American bullion

Period: Jul 1, 1516 to Jul 1, 1556

Council of War created

1517

Remodelled in 1522.

Luther's 95 Theses published

1517

Sparked the Protestant Reformation

Charles in Spain

Period: 1517 to 1520

(3 years)

Charles' reign of Spain

Period: 1517 to 1556

He spent just under 16 years in Spain, Abdicated in 1556.

Maria, F + I's daughter, dies

Mar 7, 1517

This severs foreign relations with Portugal as her husband, the King of Portugal, marries Eleanor of Austria after her.

Charles visits Spain for the first time

Sep 18, 1517

He lands on the coast of Asturias, having never visited Spain before.

Charles meets with his mother, Joanna

Nov 4, 1517

He met his mother in Tordesillas where he obtained confirmation of his royal rights but, in accordance with the demands of his Castilian advisers, he jointly signed his name with his mother in official documents.

Cisneros dies

Nov 8, 1517

General Inquisitor Torquemada intermediately regent until Charles arrives

Valladolid Cortes

1518

Here, negotiations with Charles were held due to the irregularity of Charles assuming the royal title while his mother, the legitimate queen, was alive. In the end Charles was accepted under the following conditions: he would learn to speak Castilian; he would not appoint foreigners; and he would respect the rights of his mother, Queen Joanna. After this, Charles departed to the crown of Aragon and was finally recognized as king of Aragon jointly with his mother.

Adrian of Utrecht Inquisitor General

Period: 1518 to 1523

After the leadership of Cisneros.

Alumbrados denunciated

1519

As a group who directly rejected Orthodox Christianity.

Subsidio granted papally to Charles

1519

Through this, he received the right to levy a fixed proportion of Church income across Spain.

Population of New Spain dies out

Period: 1519 to 1580

1519: 22m
1568: 2.65m
1580: 1.90m

Charles elected Holy Roman Emperor

Jun 28, 1519

Claim stemmed from paternal grandfather, Maximilian. Beat Francis I to the title = angry. Gained control of Swiss confederation, Milan, Germany etc.

Hernan Cortes conquers Mexico

1520

Charles made King of Germany

1520

Comes alongside his HRE title

Suleyman the Magnificent becomes Sultan of Ottoman Empire

1520

Increases Turkish/Islamic pressure in Euroope and threatens Hungary and Habsburg provinces

Juan Luis Vives' parents burnt

1520

(1520s) Condemned as conversos/judaisers by the Inquisition. Vives is permanently exiled

Adrian of Utrecht regent

Period: 1520 to 1522

Whilst Charles in the Netherlands and at the 1521 Diet of Worms. Had to deal with the Revolt of the Comuneros. Banned 'heretical' (Protestant) books in this role.

War of the Comuneros

Period: Apr 16, 1520 to Oct 25, 1521

An uprising by citizens of Castile against the rule of Charles V and his administration between 1520 and 1521. On April 23, 1521, after nearly a year of rebellion, the reorganized supporters of the emperor struck a crippling blow to the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar. The following day, rebel leaders Juan de Padilla, Juan Bravo, and Francisco Maldonado were beheaded. The army of the comuneros fell apart.

Charles annexes Tournai

1521

Part of extending territory in the Netherlands

Lutheran books enter Spain

1521

On the Flanders route

Diet of Worms

1521

An imperial diet - assembly of the whole Empire. Charles called Martin Luther to this, promising him safe conduct if he would appear. Initially dismissing Luther's theses as "an argument between monks", he later outlawed Luther and his followers in that same year but was tied up with other concerns and unable to take action against Protestantism.

Adrian of Utrecht bans Lutheran texts

1521

As Genereal Inquisitor, he also seals the ports in a bid to prevent the circulation of such 'heretical' literature. The books continue to arrive but the Inquisition remains vigilant

Habsburg-Valois Conflict

Period: 1521 to 1559

Between Spain and Frances, Charles and Francis I, later Philip and Henry II. Revolves mostly around Italian ambitions and territorial claims - biggest rivalry over Milan.

Gattinara begins reform of Spain's administration

1522

By this point, it had become clear that the existing government was inadequate to cope with the new demands being imposed on it

Council of Castile reformed

1522

By Gattinara

Spanish ships become the first to circumnavigate the globe

1522

Council of State formed

1522

Created to advise the monarch on Spanish and German affairs. Comprised of the Archbishop of Toledo, Duke of Alba, Gattinara and Los Cobos in 1526.

Charles' longest stay in Spain

Period: 1522 to 1529

7 years - forming bureaucratization and settling the country after the War of Comuneros. After this, he is never continuously in Spain again.

Repayment of juros equals 36%

Jul 1, 1522

36% repayment of total revenue

Masterships

Jan 1, 1523

In 1523, every single mastership belonged to the Crown

Council of Finance created

1523

By Gattinara

Servicio granted by the Cortes

1523

At a sum of 400,000 ducats over 3 years.

Charles receives right to present to all Spanish bishoprics

1523

From Pope Adrian VI (i.e. Adrian of Utrecht). Through this, he receives a great degree of control over the Church and it remains a chief source of income.

Alonso Manrique as Inquisitor General

Period: 1523 to 1538

Sympathetic towards humanists as studied himself at Alcala. Shadow of doubt over the tenability of his position due to his son's communications with disgraced Vives and Vergara.

Papal bull for masterships

Jul 1, 1523

Under Charles V, a papal bull from the Pope (Adrian IV) permitted all 3 masterships (Santiago, Calatrava and Alcantara) to be permanently vested in the Crown of Spain. This confirmation made the Orders branches of government and secured the Catholic Monarchs the total revenues of the Orders.

Income from the Cortes triples

Period: Jul 1, 1523 to Jul 1, 1556

From 130k ducats/year to 410k ducats/year

Council of Indies created

1524

By Gattinara

Alonso Manrique issues an 'edict of error'

1525

As General Inquisitor in the new Lutheran context, he issues this against the emerging groups of 'alumbrados'. First move against the groups since their denunciation in 1519.

Isabel de la Cruz and Alcaraz arrested

1525

The first alumbrados to be arrested

Battle of Pavia

Feb 24, 1525

Most decisive engagement during the first episode of the Habsburg-Valois conflict. Charles victorious, Francis taken prisoner and Spanish supremacy in Italy secured

Moors to be forcibly converted

Jul 1, 1525

Charles decrees that Moors should be forcibly converted as a consequence of the Germania Revolt

Battle of Mohacs

1526

Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia killed and Charles' brother, Ferdinand, takes the thrones. Turkish danger becomes the Habsburgs' foremost concern on land.

Charles marries Isabella

1526

Daughter of King Emmanuel of Portugal. Isabella acted as regent in Spain in his absence until her death in 1539.

Erasmus' 'Enchiridion' translated into Spanish

1526

Translator: "Everyone has the Enchiridion in Spanish."

Moriscos agree to baptisms

Jul 1, 1526

The Morisco leaders agree to baptisms for 40,000 ducats and on the basis that they would not be prosecuted by the Inquisition for 40 years.

Valladolid debate

1527

This concluded that Erasmus' teachings were not heretical. However, some judges found it difficult to differentiate between Erasmus' and Luther's terachings (both appeared to threaten the Spanish church)

Spain departs from the Erasmian court

1527

Humanist support in high places begins to fade

Sack of Rome

May 6, 1527

Charles' Spanish and German troops march against Pope Clement VII for entering the League of Cognac (alliance with France against him)

Pedro Juan Oliver excluded from chair in Valencia

1528

A humanist - efforts to suppress humanist ideas were not just confined to Castile

Inquisition not permitted to prosecute Moriscos

Jul 1, 1528

The Aragonese Cortes successfully petitioned to Charles to agree to this until the Moriscos had been officially instructed in the Catholic faith (likely to take a long time)

Treaty of Zaragoza

1529

Secured Castilian influence in parts of Asia

Hacienda system introduced

1529

Dictated ownerships of commercial estates in the New World.

Isabel de la Cruz and Alcaraz appear in auto de fe

1529

Hernandez and Ortiz arrested

1529

(Alumbrados) Hernandez implicates Tovar and Vergara as Lutheran to defend herself (the only way to escape the persecution of the Inquisition)

Rodrigo Manrique expelled from Spain

1529

General Inquisitor's son expelled for being in contact with Vives and Vergara. Alonso consequently falls out of favour - no humanist support remained in high places

Juan Valdes publishes 'Dialogue of a Christian Doctrine'

1529

Treaty of Cambrai

Aug 3, 1529

Ends a short war between Charles and Francis. Charles renounces his claim to Burgundy and Francis renounces his claims to Milan and Naples.

2 Lutherans burned

1530

One of which is Juan Lopez

Juan Valdes flees Spain

1530

To avoid an Inquisition trial after the publication of his controversial 'Dialogue of a Christian Man'.

Military orders provide 146,000 ducats a year

1530

Influx of silver/bullion pours into Spain

Period: 1530 to 1539

From the New World. All goes towards paying for juros.

Rents increase by 80%

Period: Jul 1, 1530 to Jul 1, 1555

Castilian population increases by 50%

Period: Jul 1, 1530 to Jul 1, 1580

Approx. 8 million; leads to an inflation of prices

Maria de Cazalla taken into custody

1532

Francisco Pizarro conquers Peru

1533

Vergara arrested

1533

Later sent to a monastery after disavowing his 'errors' in a 1535 auto

Rodrigo Manrique writes to Vives

1533

On the subject of his arrest - 'silence has been imposed on the learned'

Last letter of Erasmus to Spain

1533

Too dangerous to be in contact with anyone in Spain afterwards, as the Inquisition begins to clamp down more heavily on presumed heretics

Vives released by Charles

1533

Vives was Charles' chaplain, and was made bishop of the Canary Islands by him

Charles in Spain

Period: 1533 to 1535

2 years

Maria de Cazalla appears in an auto de fe

1534

Saved by Inquisitor General, Alonso Manrique. No alumbrados died in prison/burned under Manrique's Inquisition

Charles becomes Duchy of Milan

1535

Charles resumes Ferdinand's N. African conquest

1535

Captures La Goulette and Tunis in an attempt to repel Barbarossa, admiral of the Ottoman fleet.

Charles in Spain

Period: 1536 to 1538

1 1/2 years

Alonso Manrique dies

1538

Signalled the death of the protector of Erasmus in Spain. There were no mass burning in Charles' Spain before this

Charles in Spain

Period: 1538 to 1539

1 year

Isabella, Charles' wife, dies

1539

Philip assumes her position as Spanish regent

Vives dies

1540

Signified the end of strong Spanish academic influence - humanist and academic influences dying out and the remainders silenced

Mining gets underway

Period: 1540 to 1549

In the New World

Charles in Spain

Period: 1541 to 1543

1 1/2 years. After 1543, Charles didn't visit Spain again until his abdication in Sept 1556. For these 13 years, he was embroiled in the German civil war.

Charles attempt to colonise the Philippines

1542

New Laws issued

Nov 20, 1542

Created to prevent the exploitation and mistreatment of the indigenous peoples of the Americas by the encomenderos, grants of labor of a particular group of Indians, by strictly limiting their power and dominion

Consulado created

1543

Controlled goods shipped to the New World; worked in conjunction with the House of Trade.

Artois, Utrecht, Groningen and Gelderland annexed

1543

Contributing to Dutch land

Orders for the transfer of all state papers

Period: 1543 to 1545

And the turning over of all documents in officials' possession to the central archive at Simancas.

Juros repayment rises to 68% of total revenue

Jul 1, 1543

Charles only complies with the payments because it feeds the Spanish people

Mine at Potosi, Peru discovered

1545

Mine at Zacatecas, Mexico discovered

1546

Fernando Valdes appointed Inquisitor General

1546

(NOT Juan Valdes) A 'ruthless careerist who saw heresy everywhere' - much more brutal than his predecessor and mass burnings took place on an unprecedented scale

Netherlands organised into one administrative unit

1548

Previously autonomously governed states.

86 Spanish ships lost on Atlantic route

Period: 1548 to 1563

Hijacked by Francis Drake etc. Thousands of tonnes of silver lost.

Cortes complain to Charles

Jul 1, 1548

They complain that the wealth of the Indies has drained into foreign hands with no benefit to the Spanish economy. This is because the increased bullion supply attracted foreign merchants who exchanged their goods for cash instead of Spanish products, which was of no benefit.

Salamanca/Valladolid debate

1550

1550-1. First moral debate in European history to discuss the rights and treatment of a colonized people by colonizers

Repartimiento system replaces Encomienda

1550

Mainly due to the widespread unpopularity and cruelty of the initial system.

6 audiencias established

1550

In the New World; advised by the Council of Indies.

Genoese bankers charge Charles 67.4% in the repayment of juros

Jul 1, 1552

Charles attempts to take Metz from France

1553

Disaster - Burgundry ends up surrendering to Valois forces and Charles is subsequently defeated in his struggle for Western European hegemony

Marriage between Mary Tudor and Philip II

Jul 25, 1554

Charles arranged. Philip becomes King of England

Council of Italy created

1555

A Huguenot captures Havana for 26 days

1555

Philip consequently places Pedro Menendez in charge of New World security

Charles abdicates as King of Spain

Jan 16, 1556

This is due to his deteriorating mental and physical health. His son, Philip, succeeds him.

Alcabala tax accounts for only 1/4 of total revenue

Jul 1, 1556

Juros interest reaches 86%

Jul 1, 1556

Protestant Carlos de Seso exposed in Valladolid

1557

(Influenced by Valdes) A wave of arrests followed

Sevilian Protestant community exposed

1557

Small group of 130 people; the Cazalla family arrested as is Ponce de Leon for introducing books from Geneva

Germans permitted to purchase Spanish lands, office etc.

1557

In order to settle Spanish debt.

Philip declares state bankruptcy

1557

His first move as King of Spain - indicative of the financial crisis and level of debt crippling the country at this point in time.

All 3 military orders go to German bankers

Jul 1, 1557

In order to pay for Spain's juros. Lost revenue for the Spanish crown.

Charles' statement on heretics

1558

'All heretics should suffer a death penalty'

Mary Tudor dies

Nov 17, 1558

Philip loses his claim to the English throne

Spaniards studying abroad called back to Castile

1559

Valdes' order. Widely ignored and unable to be enforced.

Index of banned books expands

1559

Valdes' initiative. Listed and prosecuted under the Inquisition. Only used in Castile.

Series of spectacular autos

Period: 1559 to 1562

Many Protestants are burned. Philip returns to Spain in 1559 and is horrified by the state of the Inquisition under Valdes - established a totalitarian rule and outgrown his power

Treaty of Cateau Cambresis

Apr 3, 1559

Ends Habsburg-Valois conflict, signed between Philip and Henry II. Confirmed Spain's direct control of Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and indirectly (through dominance of the rulers of Tuscany, Genoa, and other minor states) of northern Italy.

Poverty

Jul 1, 1561

10% of Valladolid's 6600 households were poverty-stricken to the extent that they were completely reliant on public funds

Further restrictions placed on Moriscos

Jul 1, 1563

In Granada; attempts to disarm the population

Valdes 'sacked by Philip

1565

Too brutal and too much power

Concerns over a Fifth Column

Jul 1, 1565

Arab pirates had defeated Spanish troops at Orgiba and the Otomas had besieged Malta

Revolt in the Spanish Netherlands

Jul 1, 1566

Concerns of a Morisco threat within the Spanish mainland

New decree banning Morisco liberties

Jul 1, 1567

Stopped Moriscos speaking, reading and writing in Arabic as well as banning their dress, literature and traditional rites

Revolt erupts in Granada

Jul 1, 1568

Stemmed from the Alpujarras and, at its height, involved 4000 Turks with rumours that Valencian Moriscos would join the Moorish effort

Further uprisings in Granada

Period: Jul 1, 1568 to Jul 1, 1570

Morisco fuelled

Philip regains order of the Moriscos

Jul 1, 1570

80,000 Moriscos deported

Jul 1, 1571

Under Philip's order

Corzo dies

Jul 1, 1597

Leaves 1.5m ducats