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1849- Roberts v. The City of Boston (Judicial Law)
Benjamin Roberts, an African-American father, tried to enroll his daughter in a segregated school. His daughter was denied entrance into the school. The case made it to the Massachusetts Supreme Court and lost because the Supreme Court ruled that African-Americans had access to a school of their own (Brown Foundation). Roberts v. Boston was a court case seeking to end racial discrimination in Boston public schools (Roberts v. Boston, 1850). Roberts v. Boston, 59 Mass. 198 (1850). -
1865- Creation of the Freedmen's Bureau
This government organization was created to help ex-slaves, or freedmen, in their journey from slave life to living as freed people. The Freedmen's Bureau played a large role in providing education to African-Americans who were recently released from slavery after the passing of the 13th Amendment. They were responsible for creating close to 1,600 schools in the South so that they could learn to read, write, and perform other various tasks (Economic History Association). -
1896- Plessy v. Ferguson (Judicial Law)
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation laws for public facilities as long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality (Plessy v. Ferguson, 1986). Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). -
1954- Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas (Judicial Law)
The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that American state laws establishing racial segregation in public schools are unconstitutional, even if the segregated schools are otherwise equal in quality (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954). Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). -
1964- Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Statutory Law)
"To enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the U.S. to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education"(Pub.L. 88–352, § 78 Stat. 241,1964). Civil Rights Act of 1964, Pub.L. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241 (1964) -
1965- Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Statutory Law)
"The purpose is to provide all children significant opportunity to receive a fair, equitable, and high-quality education, and to close educational achievement gaps" (20 USC § 6301). Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 20 USC § 6301 -
1974- Lau v. Nichols/ Equal Education Opportunity Act of 1974 (Judicial Law)
The Supreme Court in the Lau v. Nichols decision, 44 U.S. 653 (1974), provides the legal standard for the Education Department's Title VI policy concerning discrimination on the basis of national origin (Lau v. Nichols, 1974). Lau v. Nichols, 44 U.S. 653 (1974) -
1991- Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell (Judicial Law)
Emphasizing that court orders are not intended "to operate in perpetuity," the Supreme Court makes it easier for formerly segregated school systems to fulfill their obligations under desegregation decrees. After being released from a court order, the Oklahoma City school system abandons its desegregation efforts and returns to neighborhood schools (Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell, 1991). Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell, 498 U.S. 237 (1991). -
1995- Missouri v. Jenkins (Judicial Law)
The Supreme Court sets a new goal for desegregation plans: the return of schools to local control. It emphasizes again that judicial remedies were intended to be "limited in time and extent" (Missouri v. Jenkins, 1995). Missouri v. Jenkins, 495 U.S. 33 (1995). -
1997- Guidance on the Effect of Proposition 209
Effect of Proposition 209, California's ban on affirmative action, on the responsibilities of California's school districts and colleges under educational programs and civil rights laws administered by the Department of Education. "Dear Colleague" letter: Passage of the California Civil Rights Initiative, Proposition 209 -
1999- Materials for Developing a Comprehensive ELL Program
These materials were developed as a reference tool by the Office for Civil Rights to assist school districts through the process of developing a comprehensive English language learners (ELL) program. These materials discuss helpful steps to follow in designing or revising a program for ELL students (OCR, 1999). The Office for Civil Rights (OCR), U.S. Department of Education (1999). -
2003- Grutter v. Bollinger (Judicial Law)
The Court states in Grutter v. Bollinger , 539 U.S. 306 (2003) that the use of such measures simply to achieve racial balance is “patently unconstitutional,” and it stressed that to be constitutional a program must “focus on each applicant as an individual, and not simply as a member of a particular racial group” (Grutter v. Bollinger, 2003). Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003). -
2015- Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (Statutory Law)
To reauthorize the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 to ensure that every child achieves (2 USC § 5540). Every Student Succeeds Act, 2 USC § 5540. -
2018- Updates to Department of Education and Department of Justice Guidance on Title VI
The Department of Education and the Department of Justice have decided to withdraw and rescind the Guidance and associated documents. The robust protections against race, color, and national origin discrimination guaranteed by the Constitution, Title IV, and Title VI remain unchanged and continue to be vital for educational institutions in the United States (Update Dear Colleague Letter, 2014). Dear Colleague Letter on Nondiscriminatory Administration of School Discipline, (2014). -
References
Brown Foundation (n.d.). Prelude to Brown - 1849: Roberts v. The City of Boston. Retrieved June 23, 2019 from http://brownvboard.org/content/prelude-brown-1849-roberts-v-city-boston Economic History Association (February 5, 2010). The Freedmen’s Bureau. Retrieved June 23, 2019 from http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/troost.freedmens.bureau
