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Dred Scott v. Sandford
The case involves a man named Dred Scott, an enslaved man who tried to purchase his freedom when his master died on the basis of having lived in free territories. However, after Eliza Sandford inherited the master's estate, she refused. So, Scott filed a lawsuit but what denied in the end. Individuals of African descent in the U.S. are not considered citizens nor entitled to Constitutional rights and protections during this time. -
13th Amendment
The 13th Amendment of the U.S. abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime. Its significance lies in its impact of ending legalized slavery in the U.S. By recognizing the freedom of all individuals, it's impacted certain civil rights movements and reforms aimed and achieving equality and justice for all Americans. -
14th Amendment
The 14th Amendment addresses citizenship and equal protection under the law. It grants citizenship to all people born/naturalized in the U.S. and guarantees protection of the law to all citizens. It also includes the concept of due process which prohibits state and local governments from depriving individuals of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. Overall, it was a big step in solidifying the rights of African Americans and other groups. -
15th Amendment
The 15th Amendment prohibits the denial of voting rights to citizens based on race, color, or previous conditions of slavery/servitude. It symbolized the struggle for universal suffrage and equal access to political processes. Enforcement of the amendment faced many challenges with voter suppression tactics, but overall led to many civil rights movements in the future. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
Homer Plessy, who was an African American train passenger, refused to sit in a car for black people. Plessy argued that the segregation laws violated the Equal Protection Clause. However, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine. This ruling effectively kept racial segregation in public facilities as long the facilities provided for African Americans were deemed equal to those for whites. Overall, it reinforced racism in the U.S. -
19th Amendment
The 19th Amendment grants women the right to vote (prohibits the denial of voting rights based on sex). This amendment ended many efforts of activism by suffragists who fought for women's rights, including the right to vote through marches, protests, and more. Overall, it expanded the voting mass and represents political change, empowering women to participate in political processes. -
Voter ID Laws
Voter ID laws require voters to present government issued identification before casting their ballots. The first voter ID law was adopted in South Carolina in 1950. This served as a barrier to voting (like literacy tests, poll taxes, etc.), aiming at disenfranchising African American voters. Today, 35 states have these laws. Some argue that they are necessary to prevent voter fraud and protect the integrity of elections, while others say they negatively impact marginalized societies. -
Brown v. Board of Education
Oliver Brown filed a lawsuit against the Board of Education in Topeka because they denied his daughter admission to a white school. He argued that the segregated public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause because of how schools for black children were not equal to white schools. In a unanimous decision, the SC ruled that racial segregation in schools was unconstitutional, overturning the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson. Overall, it challenged segregation. -
24th Amendment
The 24th Amendment prohibits federal and state governments from implementing poll taxes on voting in federal elections as a requirement. Poll taxes have been used to disenfranchise minorities and lower income voters by creating financial barriers to voting. The 24th Amendment eliminates this discriminatory practice and ensure that voting rights were not based upon someone's ability to pay a tax. Overall, it helped expand access to the ballot. -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
It's an act that aimed to end segregation and discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, facilities, federally funded programs, effectively damaging the Jim Crow system of racial segregation that had prevailed in the South for a long time. Also, it outlawed discrimination in employment practices, establishing the EEOC to investigate and enforce violations of the law. Overall, it addresses longstanding injustices. -
Affirmative Action
It refers to policies and programs designed to address historical and systemic discrimination by providing opportunities for groups that have been marginalized and underrepresented. It's roots stem from the civil rights movement in the 1960s to address racial/gender disparities. Today, there are debates on how it's necessary to fight ongoing discrimination using affirmative action, while others argue that it violates the equal treatment under the law (unfair to preference based on race/gender). -
Voting Rights Act of 1965
It aimed to overcome the legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote. The act was a response to systematic voter suppression tactics, like poll taxes, literacy tests, and more. The act mostly prohibits racial discrimination in voting practices. Overall, it increased voter registration and participation among African Americans and other minorities. This act also played a key role in advancing the civil rights movement. -
Equal Rights Amendment
The Equal Rights Amendment states that civil rights cannot be denied on the basis of sex. It was first introduced in 1923, but not passed until 1972 in Congress. The ERA gained significant support during the women's rights movement during the 1960s and 1970s. However, it fell short of the necessary approval from three-fourths of the states by the 1982 deadline. The significance of this amendment lies in its potential to empower gender equality. -
Title IX
It's aim is to prohibit sex discrimination in educational institutions that receive federal funding. It's also a clause of the 1972 Federal Education Amendments. Title IX has had a notable effect on women's sports, with athletic programs receiving more resources and opportunities. It also addresses sexual harassment/assault on college campuses. Educational institutions are required to have procedures for handing such complaints and take effective action. -
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
The case centers on Allan Bakke, a white applicant who was denied admission in the University of California, despite having higher test scores and qualifications than some minority applicants who were admitted under a special admissions program. The SC ruled the university's use of racial quotas was unconstitutional and violated the Equal Protection Clause. However, the Court also held that race can be considered a factor in admissions to achieve diversity because of affirmative action. -
Bowers v. Hardwick
The case addresses the constitutionality of laws criminalizing homosexual conduct. Michael Hardwick was arrested for engaging in consensual sexual activity with another man in his own home in Georgia. Harwich was charged with violating Georgia's sodomy statute, which criminalized certain sexual acts between individuals of the same sex. The SC upheld the constitutionality of Georgia's sodomy law, ruling that there was no right to engage in homosexual conduct (represents setback in LGBTQ rights). -
American with Disabilities Act
It prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including employment, transportation, and government services. The ADA was established with a goal to ensure equal opportunity, full participation, independent living, and more for people with disabilities. It also requires employers, businesses, and state/local governments to provide reasonable accommodations to individuals with disabilities. -
Shelby County v Holder
The case addressed the constitutionality of Section 4b of the Voting Rights Act, which established the formula used to determine which jurisdictions were subject to oversight when passing electoral laws. Section 5 prohibits districts from making changes to their election laws without gaining official permission. Shelby County stated that both were unconstitutional. The SC struck down Section 4b stating that it was no longer necessary and nullified Section 5 (weakened federal oversight). -
Obergefell v. Hodges
The case revolves around a series of lawsuits filed by same-sex couples challenging state bans on same-sex marriage in Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The plaintiffs argued that these bans violated the Equal Protection Clause and Due Process Clause. The SC ruled that the state bans on same-sex marriage was unconstitutional and those couples have the right to marry under the 14th Amendment. Overall, it represents activism for LGBTQ+ rights and recognition.