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Establishment of Plantations
In 1720, historian John Strype (1643-1737) updated and expanded John Stow’s "Survey of London" (1598), an account of British history. This is a receipt from an exchange made between Great Britain and Barbados that is featured in Strype's work. In the 1640s, the Dutch introduced the production of sugarcane to Barbadians and then provided African slaves to work on the plantations. The triangle trade began and soon many European nations established plantations in America, the Caribbean and Asia. -
Period: to
Modern European History
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Famine: Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland
Henry Ireton, an English General and politician who fought along side Oliver Cromwell in the Cromwellian Conquest of Ireland between 1649-1653. Along with other commanders, he is credited with deliberately adopting military strategies of crop burning and forced displacement that triggered a famine across Ireland and resulted in the death of an estimated 600,000 people, nearly 1/2 of Ireland's population at the time. -
Mercantilism: British Navigation Act
This image is an etching by an unknown artist in 1651 who depicts three Dutch ships attempting to hide as Spanish ships in order to get past the British Navigation Act which prevented the entrance of non-British ships to British ports. It is a clear and imporant piece of mercantilist trade evidence, and emphasizes the extent to which all of Europe was involved when one decision on trade practices were made. It is important as a piece of widespread political commentary. -
23 April 1661, Fashion's Reaffirmation of the Restoration
This portrait of Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II and Queen of England, illustrates the epitome of fashion in the Restoration Period. After the monarchy was restored, there was a backlash agaisnt the Puritan ideals of the preceding period and this was seen in fashion as clothes became more extravagant. The dress worn in this portrait is shows the sumptuous elegance and ornamentation that was typical of this time. -
1682, Establishment of the French Court at Versailles
In 1682, Louis XIV, King of France, moved the French court to Versailles. This was one of the ultimate expressions of the ideology behind Absolutism, as he was attempting to consolidate power through imprisoning his court with luxury. This was reflected in the clothes of the time, as a huge emphasis was placed on high quality and the dresses, such as this French gown, were also very restrictive.
luxury fabric and elaborate designs, as seen in this painting. -
Crop Mixing
This is a painting by John Slezer of a typical farm in Great Britain. A new crop rotation system, which became popular in the late 1600s, used turnips and clover instead of fallow. It was effective because turnips, which can grow in winter, are deeply rooted, allowing them to gather minerals which were out of reach to other crops. Adittionally, the clover acted as a kind of fertilizer. The four-crop rotation was originally discovered in parts of France and Belgium and spread through Europe. -
Colonialism: Expanding European Trade Overseas
This is a map by the United East India Company of the Dutch Republic in the end of the 17th century but used throughout the 18th century, which is why it's dated 1700. This was a time when European trade relied heavily upon resources from outside of Europe (ie slaves and materials) and so it is important to see a map like this in order to understand the ways that major countries went about achieving colonial power. European history simply cannot be grasped without looking at colonial affairs. -
Famine: The Great Frost/Winter
Françoise Marie de Bourbon, Louis XIV's youngest illegitimate daughter and Duchess of Orleans between 1701 and 1723. During the Great Frost of 1709, she wrote to her Aunt in Germany describing the harsh winter conditions. She writes of the cold and how neither a fire nor her fur coat can protect her from "shivering with cold". It is significant to the famine caused by the Great Frost as it displays the effects of the brutal winter and how it permeated social class and even affected the nobility. -
Selective Breeding
This is an oil painting by John Boultbee called "Robert Bakewell on Horseback." Robert Bakewell was one of the first agriculturists to experiment with selective breeding. He used methodical selection and inbreeding to produce better quality and higher quantities of milk and wool. This also contributed to improvements in cows, sheep and horses (like the one in the image) and increased knowledge of artificial selection. His methods are still used today! -
Steam Power
This is an engraving from the mid 18th C depicting the production of some of the first steam engines near Burmingham. The steam engine was developed by Scotsman James Watt in 1765 and then applied to plowing around 1850. Stationary steam engines pulled plows by a thick cable across fields and propelled the agricultural revolution forward throughout Europe thanks to its unrivaled efficiency. -
Liberalism: The Eden Treaty
Representative of the liberal movement, the Eden Treaty resulted from liberal ideas of open free trade being implemented throughout Europe (from scholars like Adam Smith) The image here shows the parliament of Britain through the eyes of politcal satirist, James Gillray who drew this in 1786 in order to depict the way that people feared tension and problems coming from opening trade agreements with France. Importantly, this image reminds us that trade agreements reached all realms of social life -
The French Revolution in Fashion
These dresses, from 1804, exemplify the changes that occurred to fashion following the French Revolution. The simplicity of both design and material that is characteristic of post-revolution fashion is evident in both of these dresses, and brings to mind the clean lines and style of Ancient Greece. Both gowns belong to the neo-classical revival that so significantly pushed away the trappings of the luxury that were characteristic of the Ancien Regime. -
Famine: The Year Without a Summer
J. W. Turner, a British painter, painted "The Chichester Canal" c.1828 depicting a beautiful orange-red sunset descneding over the canal. This work of art is significant to the famine and food shortages caused by 1816's climatic phenomenon as Turner was influenced by the changes in sunsets during that year caused by volcanic chemicals in the air. It shows an artist adapting to the devastating Year while also representing a new style of art in the face of the rough times experienced. -
Reaping Machine
This is a 1851 engraving by George Heriot Swantson of one of the first reaping machines. The reaping machine was invented by Patrick Bell and was used to pick the crops that were ready for harvest. As illustrated in the engraving, few laborers were necessary to operate this machine. As a result, most of the rural laborers found themselves unemployed and moved to the cities in search of factory work. -
Zollverein in German States
The Zollverein in Prussian states was an attempt to abolish the customs and tolls between the states in order to create a more unified region- and it worked because it was a catalyst for German unification. This image is a portrait of Friedrich List painted by Caroline Holvemeyer and is important because he was the most important head of the Zollverein movement, enough to be painted. Little did he know that his work would result in one of the largest powers in European history. -
Cobden-Chevalier Treaty between France and UK
This image is a photograph taken before the signing of the treaty and shows the 3 main backers, Bright, Cobden (England) and Chevalier (representing Napoleon III) at a foreign office. It is interesting to have a photograph of this at a time when photographs were very difficult to come by, showing that the event and its consequences were important enough to be documented and dispersed. The treaty assured low tariffs betwen Europe's largest economies at the time so the importance was very high. -
Famine: Prussia's Siege of Paris
A menu made by the French chef Alexandre Étienne Choron on Christmas day, December 25, 1870 from a restaurant known as “Voisin”. Entitled “the 99th Day of Siege”, it displays an array of different combinations of various dishes involving some of the Paris zoo animals such as a “stuffed head of donkey”, “cat with rat”, “elephant soup” and even “antelope in truffle sauce”. It is significant in displaying the reality of the famine in Paris and how the people survived with the shortage of food. -
Japonism in Fashion
These gowns were designed and made by Charles Worth at his Paris atelier in 1880. The opening of Japan to international trade in 1854 sparked an interest in Japonism and Orientalism among Europeans. While it began in the upper classes it made its way throughout society. These dresses display tradional Japanese motifs, such as the rising sun and chrysanthemums. This interest in other cultures and their appropriation set a precedent for an increasingly international sharing of culture. -
The Belle Epoque
This dress, from 1900, is characteristic of the Belle Epoque. The main themes of this period were optimism and prosperity, and this can be seen in the fashion of the time. This dress is made to be a display of wealth, and the many nouveau-riche of the time would have been eager to use style as a status symbol. This luxury quality of the fabric was not meant for working and would have clearly demarcated the wearer as a member of the new elite. -
WWI Blockade of Germany
The text here is the Memorandum to the War Cabinet on Trade Blockade presented in 1917 in England concerning the Blockade of Germany and symbolically represents how trade sanctions were manipulated by countries based on their political stance and to further their political gains. In a literal sense, the British government placed sanctions on Germany during World War I and forced all of Europe to comply, eventually being a reason the Allies won. This blockade is thus extremely important. -
Famine: British Naval Blockade of Germany
Photograph taken in Berlin in 1920 by Albert Harlingue, a French photographer, depicting a group passerbys crowding around a dead horse in the middle of the streets while it is being butchered for meat. The surrealism of the photograph accurately demonstrates the severity of the food shortages in wartime Germany and the desperateness of the hungry people who were forced to survive during the war. Photgraphs like these are relevant to studying the social effects of famine in modern Europe. -
Post-World War One and Radical Change
This dress, from 1924, shows the radical changes that occurred to fashion following World War One. Clothing became much more practical and the fabrics became less luxurious. Utility was now valued over excessive fabric and ornamentation and simplicity was more important than extravagance. -
Invention of Pesticides
DDT was invented in 1939 by the Swiss chemist, Paul Hermann Müller. It was used primarily by the Allies in World War II to protect troops and civilians from diseases such as malaria and typhus. Around the end of the war, DDT gained popularity in the farming practice to protect crops from insects. -
Famine: Nazi Occupation of Greece
Mario Rigouzzo, the honorary French consul on the island of Syros, during the Axis occupation of Greece between 1941-44. In an excerpt of his diary, he describes the bodies of Greeks who died from starvation and how they are litering the streets "with emaciated and unrecognizable faces." The significance and relevance of these first-hand accounts are crucial to studying European history through famines and how they shape and affect European societies and cultures.
